GNU LilyPond Notation Reference

# GNU LilyPond — Notation Reference

# The music typesetter

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This file documents GNU LilyPond.

Copyright 1999–2009 by the authors

> Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1 or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation; with no Invariant Sections. A copy of the license is included in the section entitled “GNU Free Documentation License”.

This is the Notation Reference (NR) for GNU LilyPond version 2.12.3. For more information about how this fits with the other documentation, see About the documentation.

More information can be found at http://www.lilypond.org/. The website contains on-line copies of this and other documentation.

> We want to dedicate this program to all the friends that we met through music.

> Han-Wen and Jan

# 1. Musical notation

This chapter explains how to create musical notation.

## 1.1 Pitches

This section discusses how to specify the pitch of notes. There are three steps to this process: input, modification, and output.

### 1.1.1 Writing pitches

This section discusses how to input pitches. There are two different ways to place notes in octaves: absolute and relative mode. In most cases, relative mode will be more convenient.

#### Absolute octave entry

A pitch name is specified using lowercase letters `a` through `g`. The note names `c` to `b` are engraved in the octave below middle C.

>     \clef bass
>     c d e f
>     g a b c
>     d e f g

Other octaves may be specified with a single quote (`'`) or comma (`,`) character. Each `'` raises the pitch by one octave; each `,` lowers the pitch by an octave.

>     \clef treble
>     c' c'' e' g
>     d'' d' d c
>     \clef bass
>     c, c,, e, g
>     d,, d, d c

#### See also

Music Glossary: Pitch names.

Snippets: Pitches.

#### Relative octave entry

When octaves are specified in absolute mode it is easy to accidentally put a pitch in the wrong octave. Relative octave mode reduces these errors since most of the time it is not necessary to indicate any octaves at all. Furthermore, in absolute mode a single mistake may be difficult to spot, while in relative mode a single error puts the rest of the piece off by one octave.

>     \relative startpitch musicexpr

In relative mode, each note is assumed to be as close to the previous note as possible. This means that the octave of each pitch inside musicexpr is calculated as follows:

- If no octave changing mark is used on a pitch, its octave is calculated so that the interval with the previous note is less than a fifth. This interval is determined without considering accidentals.
- An octave changing mark `'` or `,` can be added to respectively raise or lower a pitch by an extra octave, relative to the pitch calculated without an octave mark.
- Multiple octave changing marks can be used. For example, `''` and `,,` will alter the pitch by two octaves.
- The pitch of the first note is relative to `startpitch`. startpitch is specified in absolute octave mode, and it is recommended that it be a octave of `c`.

Here is the relative mode shown in action:

>     \relative c {
>       \clef bass
>       c d e f
>       g a b c
>       d e f g
>     }

Octave changing marks are used for intervals greater than a fourth:

>     \relative c'' {
>       c g c f,
>       c' a, e'' c
>     }

A note sequence without a single octave mark can nevertheless span large intervals:

>     \relative c {
>       c f b e
>       a d g c
>     }

If the preceding item is a chord, the first note of the chord is used as the reference point for the octave placement of a following note or chord. Inside chords, the next note is always relative to the preceding one. Examine the next example carefully, paying attention to the `c` notes.

>     \relative c' {
>       c
>       <c e g>
>       <c' e g'>
>       <c, e, g''>
>     }

As explained above, the octave of pitches is calculated only with the note names, regardless of any alterations. Therefore, an E-double-sharp following a B will be placed higher, while an F-double-flat will be placed lower. In other words, a double-augmented fourth is considered a smaller interval than a double-diminished fifth, regardless of the number of semitones that each interval contains.

>     \relative c'' {
>       c2 fis
>       c2 ges
>       b2 eisis
>       b2 feses
>     }

#### See also

Music Glossary: fifth, interval, Pitch names.

Notation Reference: Octave checks.

Snippets: Pitches.

Internals Reference: RelativeOctaveMusic.

#### Known issues and warnings

The relative conversion will not affect `\transpose`, `\chordmode` or `\relative` sections in its argument. To use relative mode within transposed music, an additional `\relative` must be placed inside `\transpose`.

If no startpitch is specified for `\relative`, then `c'` is assumed. However, this is a deprecated option and may disappear in future versions, so its use is discouraged.

#### Accidentals

Note: New users are sometimes confused about accidentals and key signatures. In LilyPond, note names are the raw input; key signatures and clefs determine how this raw input is displayed. An unaltered note like `c` means ‘C natural’, regardless of the key signature or clef. For more information, see Accidentals and key signatures.

A sharp pitch is made by adding `is` to the note name, and a flat pitch by adding `es`. As you might expect, a double sharp or double flat is made by adding `isis` or `eses`. This syntax is derived from Dutch note naming conventions. To use other names for accidentals, see Note names in other languages.

>     ais1 aes aisis aeses

A natural will cancel the effect of an accidental or key signature. However, naturals are not encoded into the note name syntax with a suffix; a natural pitch is shown as a simple note name:

>     a4 aes a2

Quarter tones may be added; the following is a series of Cs with increasing pitches:

>     ceseh1 ces ceh c cih cis cisih

Normally accidentals are printed automatically, but you may also print them manually. A reminder accidental can be forced by adding an exclamation mark `!` after the pitch. A cautionary accidental (i.e., an accidental within parentheses) can be obtained by adding the question mark `?` after the pitch. These extra accidentals can also be used to produce natural signs.

>     cis cis cis! cis? c c c! c?

Accidentals on tied notes are only printed at the beginning of a new system:

>     cis1 ~ cis ~
>     \break
>     cis

#### Selected Snippets

Preventing extra naturals from being automatically added

In accordance with standard typesetting rules, a natural sign is printed before a sharp or flat if a previous accidental on the same note needs to be canceled. To change this behavior, set the `extraNatural` property to "false" in the `Staff` context.

>     \relative c'' {
>       aeses4 aes ais a
>       \set Staff.extraNatural = ##f
>       aeses4 aes ais a
>     }

Makam example

Makam is a type of melody from Turkey using 1/9th-tone microtonal alterations. Consult the initialization file ‘`ly/makam.ly`’ for details of pitch names and alterations.

>     % Initialize makam settings
>     \include "makam.ly"

>     \relative c' {
>       \set Staff.keySignature = #`((3 . ,BAKIYE) (6 . ,(- KOMA)))
>       c4 cc db fk
>       gbm4 gfc gfb efk
>       fk4 db cc c
>     }

#### See also

Music Glossary: sharp, flat, double sharp, double flat, Pitch names, quarter tone.

Learning Manual: Accidentals and key signatures.

Notation Reference: Automatic accidentals, Annotational accidentals (musica ficta), Note names in other languages.

Snippets: Pitches.

Internals Reference: Accidental_engraver, Accidental, AccidentalCautionary, accidental-interface.

#### Known issues and warnings

There are no generally accepted standards for denoting quarter-tone accidentals, so LilyPond’s symbol does not conform to any standard.

#### Note names in other languages

There are predefined sets of note and accidental names for various other languages. To use them, include the language-specific init file listed below. For example, to use English note names, add `\include "english.ly"` to the input file.

Note: Because some other include files (such as `predefined-fretboards.ly`) use default (Nederlands) note names, the `\include` command for the language file should be placed after all other LilyPond distribution files.

The available language files and the note names they define are:

> Language File | Note Names
> --- | ---
> ‘`nederlands.ly`’ | c d e f g a bes b
> ‘`arabic.ly`’ | do re mi fa sol la sib si
> ‘`catalan.ly`’ | do re mi fa sol la sib si
> ‘`deutsch.ly`’ | c d e f g a b h
> ‘`english.ly`’ | c d e f g a bf b
> ‘`espanol.ly`’ | do re mi fa sol la sib si
> ‘`italiano.ly`’ | do re mi fa sol la sib si
> ‘`norsk.ly`’ | c d e f g a b h
> ‘`portugues.ly`’ | do re mi fa sol la sib si
> ‘`suomi.ly`’ | c d e f g a b h
> ‘`svenska.ly`’ | c d e f g a b h
> ‘`vlaams.ly`’ | do re mi fa sol la sib si

and the accidental suffixes they define are:

> Language File | sharp | flat | double sharp | double flat
> --- | --- | --- | --- | ---
> ‘`nederlands.ly`’ | -is | -es | -isis | -eses
> ‘`arabic.ly`’ | -d | -b | -dd | -bb
> ‘`catalan.ly`’ | -d/-s | -b | -dd/-ss | -bb
> ‘`deutsch.ly`’ | -is | -es | -isis | -eses
> ‘`english.ly`’ | -s/-sharp | -f/-flat | -ss/-x/-sharpsharp | -ff/-flatflat
> ‘`espanol.ly`’ | -s | -b | -ss | -bb
> ‘`italiano.ly`’ | -d | -b | -dd | -bb
> ‘`norsk.ly`’ | -iss/-is | -ess/-es | -ississ/-isis | -essess/-eses
> ‘`portugues.ly`’ | -s | -b | -ss | -bb
> ‘`suomi.ly`’ | -is | -es | -isis | -eses
> ‘`svenska.ly`’ | -iss | -ess | -ississ | -essess
> ‘`vlaams.ly`’ | -k | -b | -kk | -bb

In Dutch, `aes` is contracted to `as`, but both forms are accepted in LilyPond. Similarly, both `es` and `ees` are accepted. This also applies to `aeses` / `ases` and `eeses` / `eses`. Sometimes only these contracted names are defined in the corresponding language files.

>     a2 as e es a ases e eses

Some music uses microtones whose alterations are fractions of a ‘normal’ sharp or flat. The note names for quarter-tones defined in the various language files are listed in the following table. Here the prefixes semi- and sesqui- mean ‘half’ and ‘one and a half’, respectively. For the other languages, no special names have been defined yet.

> Language File | semi-sharp | semi-flat | sesqui-sharp | sesqui-flat
> --- | --- | --- | --- | ---
> ‘`nederlands.ly`’ | -ih | -eh | -isih | -eseh
> ‘`arabic.ly`’ | -sd | -sb | -dsd | -bsb
> ‘`deutsch.ly`’ | -ih | -eh | -isih | -eseh
> ‘`english.ly`’ | -qs | -qf | -tqs | -tqf
> ‘`italiano.ly`’ | -sd | -sb | -dsd | -bsb
> ‘`portugues.ly`’ | -sqt | -bqt | -stqt | -btqt

#### See also

Music Glossary: Pitch names.

Snippets: Pitches.

### 1.1.2 Changing multiple pitches

This section discusses how to modify pitches.

#### Octave checks

In relative mode, it is easy to forget an octave changing mark. Octave checks make such errors easier to find by displaying a warning and correcting the octave if a note is found in an unexpected octave.

To check the octave of a note, specify the absolute octave after the `=` symbol. This example will generate a warning (and change the pitch) because the second note is the absolute octave `d''` instead of `d'` as indicated by the octave correction.

>     \relative c'' {
>       c2 d='4 d
>       e2 f
>     }

The octave of notes may also be checked with the `\octaveCheck` controlpitch command. controlpitch is specified in absolute mode. This checks that the interval between the previous note and the controlpitch is within a fourth (i.e., the normal calculation of relative mode). If this check fails, a warning is printed, but the previous note is not changed. Future notes are relative to the controlpitch.

>     \relative c'' {
>       c2 d
>       \octaveCheck c'
>       e2 f
>     }

Compare the two bars below. The first and third `\octaveCheck` checks fail, but the second one does not fail.

>     \relative c'' {
>       c4 f g f

>       c4
>       \octaveCheck c'
>       f
>       \octaveCheck c'
>       g
>       \octaveCheck c'
>       f
>     }

#### See also

Snippets: Pitches.

Internals Reference: RelativeOctaveCheck.

#### Transpose

A music expression can be transposed with `\transpose`. The syntax is

>     \transpose frompitch topitch musicexpr

This means that musicexpr is transposed by the interval between the pitches frompitch and topitch: any note with pitch frompitch is changed to topitch and any other note is transposed by the same interval. Both pitches are entered in absolute mode.

Consider a piece written in the key of D-major. It can be transposed up to E-major; note that the key signature is automatically transposed as well.

>     \transpose d e {
>       \relative c' {
>         \key d \major
>         d4 fis a d
>       }
>     }

If a part written in C (normal concert pitch) is to be played on the A clarinet (for which an A is notated as a C and thus sounds a minor third lower than notated), the appropriate part will be produced with:

>     \transpose a c' {
>       \relative c' {
>         \key c \major
>         c4 d e g
>       }
>     }

Note that we specify `\key c \major` explicitly. If we do not specify a key signature, the notes will be transposed but no key signature will be printed.

`\transpose` distinguishes between enharmonic pitches: both `\transpose c cis` or `\transpose c des` will transpose up a semitone. The first version will print sharps and the notes will remain on the same scale step, the second version will print flats on the scale step above.

>     music = \relative c' { c d e f }
>     \new Staff {
>       \transpose c cis { \music }
>       \transpose c des { \music }
>     }

`\transpose` may also be used in a different way, to input written notes for a transposing instrument. The previous examples show how to enter pitches in C (or concert pitch) and typeset them for a transposing instrument, but the opposite is also possible if you for example have a set of instrumental parts and want to print a conductor’s score. For example, when entering music for a B-flat trumpet that begins on a notated E (concert D), one would write:

>     musicInBflat = { e4 … }
>     \transpose c bes, \musicInBflat

To print this music in F (e.g., rearranging to a French horn) you could wrap the existing music with another `\transpose`:

>     musicInBflat = { e4 … }
>     \transpose f c' { \transpose c bes, \musicInBflat }

For more information about transposing instruments, see Instrument transpositions.

#### Selected Snippets

Transposing pitches with minimum accidentals ("Smart" transpose)

This example uses some Scheme code to enforce enharmonic modifications for notes in order to have the minimum number of accidentals. In this case, the following rules apply:

Double accidentals should be removed

B sharp -> C

E sharp -> F

C flat -> B

F flat -> E

In this manner, the most natural enharmonic notes are chosen.

>     #(define (naturalize-pitch p)
>       (let ((o (ly:pitch-octave p))
>             (a (* 4 (ly:pitch-alteration p)))
>             ;; alteration, a, in quarter tone steps,
>             ;; for historical reasons
>             (n (ly:pitch-notename p)))
>         (cond
>          ((and (> a 1) (or (eq? n 6) (eq? n 2)))
>           (set! a (- a 2))
>           (set! n (+ n 1)))
>          ((and (< a -1) (or (eq? n 0) (eq? n 3)))
>           (set! a (+ a 2))
>           (set! n (- n 1))))
>         (cond
>          ((> a 2) (set! a (- a 4)) (set! n (+ n 1)))
>          ((< a -2) (set! a (+ a 4)) (set! n (- n 1))))
>         (if (< n 0) (begin (set! o (- o 1)) (set! n (+ n 7))))
>         (if (> n 6) (begin (set! o (+ o 1)) (set! n (- n 7))))
>         (ly:make-pitch o n (/ a 4))))

>     #(define (naturalize music)
>       (let ((es (ly:music-property music 'elements))
>             (e (ly:music-property music 'element))
>             (p (ly:music-property music 'pitch)))
>         (if (pair? es)
>            (ly:music-set-property!
>              music 'elements
>              (map (lambda (x) (naturalize x)) es)))
>         (if (ly:music? e)
>            (ly:music-set-property!
>              music 'element
>              (naturalize e)))
>         (if (ly:pitch? p)
>            (begin
>              (set! p (naturalize-pitch p))
>              (ly:music-set-property! music 'pitch p)))
>         music))

>     naturalizeMusic =
>     #(define-music-function (parser location m)
>       (ly:music?)
>       (naturalize m))

>     music = \relative c' { c4 d e g }

>     \score {
>       \new Staff {
>         \transpose c ais { \music }
>         \naturalizeMusic \transpose c ais { \music }
>         \transpose c deses { \music }
>         \naturalizeMusic \transpose c deses { \music }
>       }
>       \layout { }
>     }

#### See also

Notation Reference: Instrument transpositions.

Snippets: Pitches.

Internals Reference: TransposedMusic.

#### Known issues and warnings

The relative conversion will not affect `\transpose`, `\chordmode` or `\relative` sections in its argument. To use relative mode within transposed music, an additional `\relative` must be placed inside `\transpose`.

### 1.1.3 Displaying pitches

This section discusses how to alter the output of pitches.

#### Clef

The clef may be altered. Middle C is shown in every example.

>     \clef treble
>     c2 c
>     \clef alto
>     c2 c
>     \clef tenor
>     c2 c
>     \clef bass
>     c2 c

Other clefs include:

>     \clef french
>     c2 c
>     \clef soprano
>     c2 c
>     \clef mezzosoprano
>     c2 c
>     \clef baritone
>     c2 c

>     \break

>     \clef varbaritone
>     c2 c
>     \clef subbass
>     c2 c
>     \clef percussion
>     c2 c
>     \clef tab
>     c2 c

Further supported clefs are described under Mensural clefs and Gregorian clefs.

By adding `_8` or `^8` to the clef name, the clef is transposed one octave down or up, respectively, and `_15` and `^15` transpose by two octaves. The clef name must be enclosed in quotes when it contains underscores or digits.

>     \clef treble
>     c2 c
>     \clef "treble_8"
>     c2 c
>     \clef "bass^15"
>     c2 c

#### Selected Snippets

Tweaking clef properties

The command `\clef "treble_8"` is equivalent to setting `clefGlyph`, `clefPosition` (which controls the vertical position of the clef), `middleCPosition` and `clefOctavation`. A clef is printed when any of the properties except `middleCPosition` are changed.

Note that changing the glyph, the position of the clef, or the octavation does not in itself change the position of subsequent notes on the staff: the position of middle C must also be specified to do this. The positional parameters are relative to the staff center line, positive numbers displacing upwards, counting one for each line and space. The `clefOctavation` value would normally be set to 7, -7, 15 or -15, but other values are valid.

When a clef change takes place at a line break the new clef symbol is printed at both the end of the previous line and the beginning of the new line by default. If the warning clef at the end of the previous line is not required it can be suppressed by setting the `Staff` property `explicitClefVisibility` to the value `end-of-line-invisible`. The default behavior can be recovered with `\unset Staff.explicitClefVisibility`.

The following examples show the possibilities when setting these properties manually. On the first line, the manual changes preserve the standard relative positioning of clefs and notes, whereas on the second line, they do not.

>     \layout { ragged-right = ##t }

>     {
>       % The default treble clef
>       c'1
>       % The standard bass clef
>       \set Staff.clefGlyph = #"clefs.F"
>       \set Staff.clefPosition = #2
>       \set Staff.middleCPosition = #6
>       c'1
>       % The baritone clef
>       \set Staff.clefGlyph = #"clefs.C"
>       \set Staff.clefPosition = #4
>       \set Staff.middleCPosition = #4
>       c'1
>       % The standard choral tenor clef
>       \set Staff.clefGlyph = #"clefs.G"
>       \set Staff.clefPosition = #-2
>       \set Staff.clefOctavation = #-7
>       \set Staff.middleCPosition = #1
>       c'1
>       % A non-standard clef
>       \set Staff.clefPosition = #0
>       \set Staff.clefOctavation = #0
>       \set Staff.middleCPosition = #-4
>       c'1 \break

>       % The following clef changes do not preserve
>       % the normal relationship between notes and clefs:

>       \set Staff.clefGlyph = #"clefs.F"
>       \set Staff.clefPosition = #2
>       c'1
>       \set Staff.clefGlyph = #"clefs.G"
>       c'1
>       \set Staff.clefGlyph = #"clefs.C"
>       c'1
>       \set Staff.clefOctavation = #7
>       c'1
>       \set Staff.clefOctavation = #0
>       \set Staff.clefPosition = #0
>       c'1

>       % Return to the normal clef:

>       \set Staff.middleCPosition = #0
>       c'1
>     }

#### See also

Notation Reference: Mensural clefs, Gregorian clefs.

Snippets: Pitches.

Internals Reference: Clef_engraver, Clef, OctavateEight, clef-interface.

#### Key signature

Note: New users are sometimes confused about accidentals and key signatures. In LilyPond, note names are the raw input; key signatures and clefs determine how this raw input is displayed. An unaltered note like `c` means ‘C natural’, regardless of the key signature or clef. For more information, see Accidentals and key signatures.

The key signature indicates the tonality in which a piece is played. It is denoted by a set of alterations (flats or sharps) at the start of the staff. The key signature may be altered:

>     \key pitch mode

Here, mode should be `\major` or `\minor` to get a key signature of pitch-major or pitch-minor, respectively. You may also use the standard mode names, also called church modes: `\ionian`, `\dorian`, `\phrygian`, `\lydian`, `\mixolydian`, `\aeolian`, and `\locrian`.

>     \key g \major
>     fis1
>     f
>     fis

#### Selected Snippets

Preventing natural signs from being printed when the key signature changes

When the key signature changes, natural signs are automatically printed to cancel any accidentals from previous key signatures. This may be prevented by setting to "false" the `printKeyCancellation` property in the `Staff` context.

>     \relative c' {
>       \key d \major
>       a4 b cis d
>       \key g \minor
>       a4 bes c d
>       \set Staff.printKeyCancellation = ##f
>       \key d \major
>       a4 b cis d
>       \key g \minor
>       a4 bes c d
>     }

Non-traditional key signatures

The commonly used `\key` command sets the `keySignature` property, in the `Staff` context.

To create non-standard key signatures, set this property directly. The format of this command is a list:

`\set Staff.keySignature = #`(((octave . step) . alter) ((octave . step) . alter) ...)` where, for each element in the list, `octave` specifies the octave (0 being the octave from middle C to the B above), `step` specifies the note within the octave (0 means C and 6 means B), and `alter` is `,SHARP ,FLAT ,DOUBLE-SHARP` etc. (Note the leading comma.) The accidentals in the key signature will appear in the reverse order to that in which they are specified.

Alternatively, for each item in the list, using the more concise format `(step . alter)` specifies that the same alteration should hold in all octaves.

For microtonal scales where a "sharp" is not 100 cents, `alter` refers to the alteration as a proportion of a 200-cent whole tone.

Here is an example of a possible key signature for generating a whole-tone scale:

>     \relative c' {
>       \set Staff.keySignature = #`(((0 . 3) . ,SHARP)
>                                    ((0 . 5) . ,FLAT)
>                                    ((0 . 6) . ,FLAT))
>       c4 d e fis
>       aes4 bes c2
>     }

#### See also

Music Glossary: church mode, scordatura.

Learning Manual: Accidentals and key signatures.

Snippets: Pitches.

Internals Reference: KeyChangeEvent, Key_engraver, Key_performer, KeyCancellation, KeySignature, key-cancellation-interface, key-signature-interface.

#### Ottava brackets

Ottava brackets introduce an extra transposition of an octave for the staff:

>     a'2 b
>     \ottava #1
>     a b
>     \ottava #0
>     a b

The `ottava` function also takes -1 (for 8va bassa), 2 (for 15ma), and -2 (for 15ma bassa) as arguments.

#### Selected Snippets

Ottava text

Internally, `\ottava` sets the properties `ottavation` (for example, to `"8va"` or `"8vb"`) and `middleCPosition`. To override the text of the bracket, set `ottavation` after invoking `\ottava`.

>     {
>       \ottava #1
>       \set Staff.ottavation = #"8"
>       c''1
>       \ottava #0
>       c'1
>       \ottava #1
>       \set Staff.ottavation = #"Text"
>       c''1
>     }

#### See also

Music Glossary: octavation.

Snippets: Pitches.

Internals Reference: Ottava_spanner_engraver, OttavaBracket, ottava-bracket-interface.

#### Instrument transpositions

When typesetting scores that involve transposing instruments, some parts can be typeset in a different pitch than the concert pitch. In these cases, the key of the transposing instrument should be specified; otherwise the MIDI output and cues in other parts will produce incorrect pitches. For more information about quotations, see Quoting other voices.

>     \transposition pitch

The pitch to use for `\transposition` should correspond to the real sound heard when a `c'` written on the staff is played by the transposing instrument. This pitch is entered in absolute mode, so an instrument that produces a real sound which is one tone higher than the printed music should use `\transposition d'`. `\transposition` should only be used if the pitches are not being entered in concert pitch.

Here are a few notes for violin and B-flat clarinet where the parts have been entered using the notes and key as they appear in each part of the conductor’s score. The two instruments are playing in unison.

>     \new GrandStaff <<
>       \new Staff = "violin" {
>         \relative c'' {
>           \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Vln"
>           \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"violin"
>           % not strictly necessary, but a good reminder
>           \transposition c'

>           \key c \major
>           g4( c8) r c r c4
>         }
>       }
>       \new Staff = "clarinet" {
>         \relative c'' {
>           \set Staff.instrumentName = \markup { Cl (B\flat) }
>           \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"clarinet"
>           \transposition bes

>           \key d \major
>           a4( d8) r d r d4
>         }
>       }
>     >>

The `\transposition` may be changed during a piece. For example, a clarinetist may switch from an A clarinet to a B-flat clarinet.

>     \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Cl (A)"
>     \key a \major
>     \transposition a
>     c d e f
>     \textLengthOn
>     s1*0^\markup { Switch to B\flat clarinet }
>     R1

>     \key bes \major
>     \transposition bes
>     c2 g

#### See also

Music Glossary: concert pitch, transposing instrument.

Notation Reference: Quoting other voices, Transpose.

Snippets: Pitches.

#### Automatic accidentals

There are many different conventions on how to typeset accidentals. LilyPond provides a function to specify which accidental style to use. This function is called as follows:

>     \new Staff <<
>       #(set-accidental-style 'voice)
>       { … }
>     >>

The accidental style applies to the current `Staff` by default (with the exception of the styles `piano` and `piano-cautionary`, which are explained below). Optionally, the function can take a second argument that determines in which scope the style should be changed. For example, to use the same style in all staves of the current `StaffGroup`, use:

>     #(set-accidental-style 'voice 'StaffGroup)

The following accidental styles are supported. To demonstrate each style, we use the following example:

>     musicA = {
>       <<
>         \relative c' {
>           cis'8 fis, d'4 <a cis>8 f bis4 |
>           cis2. <c, g'>4 |
>         }
>         \\
>         \relative c' {
>           ais'2 cis, |
>           fis8 b a4 cis2 |
>         }
>       >>
>     }

>     musicB = {
>       \clef bass
>       \new Voice {
>         \voiceTwo \relative c' {
>           <fis, a cis>4
>           \change Staff = up
>           cis'
>           \change Staff = down
>           <fis, a>
>           \change Staff = up
>           dis' |
>           \change Staff = down
>           <fis, a cis>4 gis <f a d>2 |
>         }
>       }
>     }

>     \new PianoStaff {
>       <<
>         \context Staff = "up" {
>           #(set-accidental-style 'default)
>           \musicA
>         }
>         \context Staff = "down" {
>           #(set-accidental-style 'default)
>           \musicB
>         }
>       >>
>     }

Note that the last lines of this example can be replaced by the following, as long as the same accidental style should be used in both staves.

>     \new PianoStaff {
>       <<
>         \context Staff = "up" {
>           %%% change the next line as desired:
>           #(set-accidental-style 'default 'Score)
>           \musicA
>         }
>         \context Staff = "down" {
>           \musicB
>         }
>       >>
>     }

`default`

  This is the default typesetting behavior. It corresponds to eighteenth-century common practice: accidentals are remembered to the end of the measure in which they occur and only in their own octave. Thus, in the example below, no natural signs are printed before the `b` in the second measure or the last `c`:

`voice`

  The normal behavior is to remember the accidentals at `Staff`-level. In this style, however, accidentals are typeset individually for each voice. Apart from that, the rule is similar to `default`.

  As a result, accidentals from one voice do not get canceled in other voices, which is often an unwanted result: in the following example, it is hard to determine whether the second `a` should be played natural or sharp. The `voice` option should therefore be used only if the voices are to be read solely by individual musicians. If the staff is to be used by one musician (e.g., a conductor or in a piano score) then `modern` or `modern-cautionary` should be used instead.

`modern`

  This rule corresponds to the common practice in the twentieth century. It prints the same accidentals as `default`, with two exceptions that serve to avoid ambiguity: after temporary accidentals, cancellation marks are printed also in the following measure (for notes in the same octave) and, in the same measure, for notes in other octaves. Hence the naturals before the `b` and the `c` in the second measure of the upper staff:

`modern-cautionary`

  This rule is similar to `modern`, but the ‘extra’ accidentals (the ones not typeset by `default`) are typeset as cautionary accidentals. They are by default printed with parentheses, but they can also be printed in reduced size by defining the `cautionary-style` property of `AccidentalSuggestion`.

`modern-voice`

  This rule is used for multivoice accidentals to be read both by musicians playing one voice and musicians playing all voices. Accidentals are typeset for each voice, but they are canceled across voices in the same `Staff`. Hence, the `a` in the last measure is canceled because the previous cancellation was in a different voice, and the `d` in the lower staff is canceled because of the accidental in a different voice in the previous measure:

`modern-voice-cautionary`

  This rule is the same as `modern-voice`, but with the extra accidentals (the ones not typeset by `voice`) typeset as cautionaries. Even though all accidentals typeset by `default` are typeset with this rule, some of them are typeset as cautionaries.

`piano`

  This rule reflects twentieth-century practice for piano notation. Its behavior is very similar to `modern` style, but here accidentals also get canceled across the staves in the same `GrandStaff` or `PianoStaff`, hence all the cancellations of the final notes.

  This accidental style applies to the current `GrandStaff` or `PianoStaff` by default.

`piano-cautionary`

  This is the same as `piano` but with the extra accidentals typeset as cautionaries.

`neo-modern`

  This rule reproduces a common practice in contemporary music: accidentals are printed like with `modern`, but they are printed again if the same note appears later in the same measure – except if the note is immediately repeated.

`neo-modern-cautionary`

  This rule is similar to `neo-modern`, but the extra accidentals are printed as cautionary accidentals.

`dodecaphonic`

  This rule reflects a practice introduced by composers at the beginning of the 20th century, in an attempt to abolish the hierarchy between natural and non-natural notes. With this style, every note gets an accidental sign, including natural signs.

`teaching`

  This rule is intended for students, and makes it easy to create scale sheets with automagically created cautionary accidentals. Accidentals are printed like with `modern`, but cautionary accidentals are added for all sharp or flat tones specified by the key signature, except if the note is immediately repeated.

`no-reset`

  This is the same as `default` but with accidentals lasting ‘forever’ and not only within the same measure:

`forget`

  This is the opposite of `no-reset`: Accidentals are not remembered at all – and hence all accidentals are typeset relative to the key signature, regardless of what came before in the music. Unlike `dodecaphonic`, this rule never prints any naturals.

#### Selected Snippets

Dodecaphonic-style accidentals for each note including naturals

In early 20th century works, starting with Schoenberg, Berg and Webern (the "Second" Viennese school), every pitch in the twelve-tone scale has to be regarded as equal, without any hierarchy such as the classical (tonal) degrees. Therefore, these composers print one accidental for each note, even at natural pitches, to emphasize their new approach to music theory and language.

This snippet shows how to achieve such notation rules.

>     \score {
>       \new Staff {
>         #(set-accidental-style 'dodecaphonic)
>         c'4 dis' cis' cis'
>         c'4 dis' cis' cis'
>         c'4 c' dis' des'
>       }
>       \layout {
>         \context {
>           \Staff
>           \remove "Key_engraver"
>         }
>       }
>     }

#### See also

Snippets: Pitches.

Internals Reference: Accidental, Accidental_engraver, GrandStaff and PianoStaff, Staff, AccidentalSuggestion, AccidentalPlacement, accidental-suggestion-interface.

#### Known issues and warnings

Simultaneous notes are considered to be entered in sequential mode. This means that in a chord the accidentals are typeset as if the notes in the chord happen one at a time, in the order in which they appear in the input file. This is a problem when accidentals in a chord depend on each other, which does not happen for the default accidental style. The problem can be solved by manually inserting `!` and `?` for the problematic notes.

#### Ambitus

The term ambitus (pl. ambitus) denotes a range of pitches for a given voice in a part of music. It may also denote the pitch range that a musical instrument is capable of playing. Ambitus are printed on vocal parts so that performers can easily determine if it matches their capabilities.

Ambitus are denoted at the beginning of a piece near the initial clef. The range is graphically specified by two note heads that represent the lowest and highest pitches. Accidentals are only printed if they are not part of the key signature.

>     \layout {
>       \context {
>         \Voice
>         \consists "Ambitus_engraver"
>       }
>     }

>     \relative c'' {
>       aes c e2
>       cis,1
>     }

#### Selected Snippets

Adding ambitus per voice

Ambitus can be added per voice. In this case, the ambitus must be moved manually to prevent collisions.

>     \new Staff <<
>       \new Voice \with {
>         \consists "Ambitus_engraver"
>       } \relative c'' {
>         \override Ambitus #'X-offset = #2.0
>         \voiceOne
>         c4 a d e
>         f1
>       }
>       \new Voice \with {
>         \consists "Ambitus_engraver"
>       } \relative c' {
>         \voiceTwo
>         es4 f g as
>         b1
>       }
>     >>

Ambitus with multiple voices

Adding the `Ambitus_engraver` to the `Staff` context creates a single ambitus per staff, even in the case of staves with multiple voices.

>     \new Staff \with {
>       \consists "Ambitus_engraver"
>       }
>     <<
>       \new Voice \relative c'' {
>         \voiceOne
>         c4 a d e
>         f1
>       }
>       \new Voice \relative c' {
>         \voiceTwo
>         es4 f g as
>         b1
>       }
>     >>

#### See also

Music Glossary: ambitus.

Snippets: Pitches.

Internals Reference: Ambitus_engraver, Voice, Staff, Ambitus, AmbitusAccidental, AmbitusLine, AmbitusNoteHead, ambitus-interface.

#### Known issues and warnings

There is no collision handling in the case of multiple per-voice ambitus.

### 1.1.4 Note heads

This section suggests ways of altering note heads.

#### Special note heads

Note heads may be altered:

>     c4 b a b
>     \override NoteHead #'style = #'cross
>     c4 b a b
>     \revert NoteHead #'style
>     c4 d e f

There is a shorthand for diamond shapes which can only be used inside chords:

>     <c f\harmonic>2 <d a'\harmonic>4 <c g'\harmonic>

To see all note head styles, see Note head styles.

#### See also

Snippets: Pitches.

Notation Reference: Note head styles, Chorded notes.

Internals Reference: note-event, Note_heads_engraver, Ledger_line_engraver, NoteHead, LedgerLineSpanner, note-head-interface, ledger-line-spanner-interface.

#### Easy notation note heads

The ‘easy play’ note head includes a note name inside the head. It is used in music for beginners. To make the letters readable, it should be printed in a large font size. To print with a larger font, see Setting the staff size.

>     #(set-global-staff-size 26)
>     \relative c' {
>       \easyHeadsOn
>       c2 e4 f
>       g1
>       \easyHeadsOff
>       c,1
>     }

#### Predefined commands

`\easyHeadsOn`, `\easyHeadsOff`.

#### See also

Notation Reference: Setting the staff size.

Snippets: Pitches.

Internals Reference: note-event, Note_heads_engraver, NoteHead, note-head-interface.

#### Shape note heads

In shape note head notation, the shape of the note head corresponds to the harmonic function of a note in the scale. This notation was popular in nineteenth-century American song books. Shape note heads can be produced:

>     \aikenHeads
>     c, d e f g a b c
>     \sacredHarpHeads
>     c, d e f g a b c

Shapes are typeset according to the step in the scale, where the base of the scale is determined by the `\key` command.

#### Predefined commands

`\aikenHeads`, `\sacredHarpHeads`.

#### Selected Snippets

Applying note head styles depending on the step of the scale

The `shapeNoteStyles` property can be used to define various note head styles for each step of the scale (as set by the key signature or the "tonic" property). This property requires a set of symbols, which can be purely arbitrary (geometrical expressions such as `triangle`, `cross`, and `xcircle` are allowed) or based on old American engraving tradition (some latin note names are also allowed).

That said, to imitate old American song books, there are several predefined note head styles available through shortcut commands such as `\aikenHeads` or `\sacredHarpHeads`.

This example shows different ways to obtain shape note heads, and demonstrates the ability to transpose a melody without losing the correspondence between harmonic functions and note head styles.

>     fragment = {
>       \key c \major
>       c2 d
>       e2 f
>       g2 a
>       b2 c
>     }

>     \score {
>       \new Staff {
>         \transpose c d
>         \relative c' {
>           \set shapeNoteStyles = #'#(do re mi fa
>                                      #f la ti)
>           \fragment
>         }

>         \break

>         \relative c' {
>           \set shapeNoteStyles = #'#(cross triangle fa #f
>                                      mensural xcircle diamond)
>           \fragment
>         }
>       }
>       \layout { ragged-right = ##t }
>     }

To see all note head styles, see Note head styles.

#### See also

Snippets: Pitches.

Notation Reference: Note head styles.

Internals Reference: note-event, Note_heads_engraver, NoteHead, note-head-interface.

#### Improvisation

Improvisation is sometimes denoted with slashed note heads, where the performer may choose any pitch but should play the specified rhythm. Such note heads can be created:

>     \new Voice \with {
>       \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver"
>     } {
>       e8 e g a a16( bes) a8 g
>       \improvisationOn
>       e8 ~
>       e2 ~ e8 f4 f8 ~
>       f2
>       \improvisationOff
>       a16( bes) a8 g e
>     }

#### Predefined commands

`\improvisationOn`, `\improvisationOff`.

#### See also

Snippets: Pitches.

Internals Reference: Pitch_squash_engraver, Voice, RhythmicStaff.

## 1.2 Rhythms

This section discusses rhythms, rests, durations, beaming and bars.

### 1.2.1 Writing rhythms

#### Durations

Durations are designated by numbers and dots. Durations are entered as their reciprocal values. For example, a quarter note is entered using a `4` (since it is a 1/4 note), and a half note is entered using a `2` (since it is a 1/2 note). For notes longer than a whole you must use the `\longa` (a double breve) and `\breve` commands. Durations as short as 128th notes may be specified. Shorter values are possible, but only as beamed notes.

>     \time 8/1
>     c\longa c\breve c1 c2
>     c4 c8 c16 c32 c64 c128 c128

Here are the same durations with automatic beaming turned off.

>     \time 8/1
>     \autoBeamOff
>     c\longa c\breve c1 c2
>     c4 c8 c16 c32 c64 c128 c128

A note with the duration of a quadruple breve may be entered with `\maxima`, but this is supported only within ancient music notation. For details, see Ancient notation.

If the duration is omitted, it is set to the previously entered duration. The default for the first note is a quarter note.

>     a a a2 a a4 a a1 a

To obtain dotted note lengths, place a dot (`.`) after the duration. Double-dotted notes are specified by appending two dots, and so on.

>     a4 b c4. b8 a4. b4.. c8.

Some durations cannot be represented with just binary durations and dots; they can be represented only by tying two or more notes together. For details, see Ties.

For ways of specifying durations for the syllables of lyrics and ways of aligning lyrics to notes, see Vocal music.

Optionally, notes can be spaced strictly proportionately to their duration. For details of this and other settings which control proportional notation, see Proportional notation.

Dots are normally moved up to avoid staff lines, except in polyphonic situations. Predefined commands are available to force a particular direction manually, for details see Direction and placement.

#### Predefined commands

`\autoBeamOff`, `\dotsUp`, `\dotsDown`, `\dotsNeutral`.

#### See also

Music Glossary: breve, longa, maxima, note value, Duration names notes and rests.

Notation Reference: Automatic beams, Ties, Stems, Writing rhythms, Writing rests, Vocal music, Ancient notation, Proportional notation.

Snippets: Rhythms.

Internals Reference: Dots, DotColumn.

#### Known issues and warnings

There is no fundamental limit to rest durations (both in terms of longest and shortest), but the number of glyphs is limited: rests from 128th to maxima (8 x whole) may be printed.

#### Tuplets

Tuplets are made from a music expression by multiplying all the durations with a fraction:

>     \times fraction { music }

The duration of music will be multiplied by the fraction. The fraction’s denominator will be printed over or under the notes, optionally with a bracket. The most common tuplet is the triplet in which 3 notes have the duration of 2, so the notes are 2/3 of their written length.

>     a2 \times 2/3 { b4 b b }
>     c4 c \times 2/3 { b4 a g }

The automatic placement of the tuplet bracket above or below the notes may be overridden manually with predefined commands, for details see Direction and placement.

Tuplets may be nested:

>     \autoBeamOff
>     c4 \times 4/5 { f8 e f \times 2/3 { e[ f g] } } f4 |

Modifying nested tuplets which begin at the same musical moment must be done with `\tweak`.

To modify the duration of notes without printing a tuplet bracket, see Scaling durations.

#### Predefined commands

`\tupletUp`, `\tupletDown`, `\tupletNeutral`.

#### Selected Snippets

Entering several tuplets using only one \times command

The property `tupletSpannerDuration` sets how long each of the tuplets contained within the brackets after `\times` should last. Many consecutive tuplets can then be placed within a single `\times` expression, thus saving typing.

In the example, two triplets are shown, while `\times` was entered only once.

For more information about `make-moment`, see "Time administration".

>     \relative c' {
>       \time 2/4
>       \set tupletSpannerDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
>       \times 2/3 { c8 c c c c c }
>     }

Changing the tuplet number

By default, only the numerator of the tuplet number is printed over the tuplet bracket, i.e., the denominator of the argument to the `\times` command. Alternatively, num:den of the tuplet number may be printed, or the tuplet number may be suppressed altogether.

>     \relative c'' {
>       \times 2/3 { c8 c c }
>       \times 2/3 { c8 c c }
>       \override TupletNumber #'text = #tuplet-number::calc-fraction-text
>       \times 2/3 { c8 c c }
>       \override TupletNumber #'stencil = ##f
>       \times 2/3 { c8 c c }
>     }

Permitting line breaks within beamed tuplets

This artificial example shows how both manual and automatic line breaks may be permitted to within a beamed tuplet. Note that such off-beat tuplets have to be beamed manually.

>     \layout {
>       \context {
>         \Voice
>         % Permit line breaks within tuplets
>         \remove "Forbid_line_break_engraver"
>         % Allow beams to be broken at line breaks
>         \override Beam #'breakable = ##t
>       }
>     }
>     \relative c'' {
>       a8
>       \repeat unfold 5 { \times 2/3 { c[ b a] } }
>       % Insert a manual line break within a tuplet
>       \times 2/3 { c[ b \bar "" \break a] }
>       \repeat unfold 5 { \times 2/3 { c[ b a] } }
>       c8
>     }

#### See also

Music Glossary: triplet, tuplet, polymetric.

Learning Manual: Tweaking methods.

Notation Reference: Time administration, Scaling durations, The `\tweak` command, Polymetric notation.

Snippets: Rhythms.

Internals Reference: TupletBracket, TupletNumber, TimeScaledMusic.

#### Known issues and warnings

When the first note on a staff is a grace note followed by a tuplet the grace note must be placed before the `\times` command to avoid errors. Anywhere else, grace notes may be placed within tuplet brackets.

#### Scaling durations

You can alter the duration of single notes, rests or chords by a fraction `N/M` by appending `*N/M` (or `*N` if `M` is 1) to the duration. This will not affect the appearance of the notes or rests produced, but the altered duration will be used in calculating the position within the measure and setting the duration in the MIDI output. Multiplying factors may be combined such as `*L*M/N`.

In the following example, the first three notes take up exactly two beats, but no triplet bracket is printed.

>     \time 2/4
>     % Alter durations to triplets
>     a4*2/3 gis4*2/3 a4*2/3
>     % Normal durations
>     a4 a4
>     % Double the duration of chord
>     <a d>4*2
>     % Duration of quarter, appears like sixteenth
>     b16*4 c4

The duration of skip or spacing notes may also be modified by a multiplier. This is useful for skipping many measures, e.g., `s1*23`.

Longer stretches of music may be compressed by a fraction in the same way, as if every note, chord or rest had the fraction as a multiplier. This leaves the appearance of the music unchanged but the internal duration of the notes will be multiplied by the fraction num/den. The spaces around the dot are required. Here is an example showing how music can be compressed and expanded:

>     \time 2/4
>     % Normal durations
>     <c a>4 c8 a
>     % Scale music by *2/3
>     \scaleDurations #'(2 . 3) {
>       <c a f>4. c8 a f
>     }
>     % Scale music by *2
>     \scaleDurations #'(2 . 1) {
>       <c' a>4 c8 b
>     }

One application of this command is in polymetric notation, see Polymetric notation.

#### See also

Notation Reference: Tuplets, Invisible rests, Polymetric notation.

Snippets: Rhythms.

#### Ties

A tie connects two adjacent note heads of the same pitch. The tie in effect extends the duration of a note.

Note: Ties should not be confused with slurs, which indicate articulation, or phrasing slurs, which indicate musical phrasing. A tie is just a way of extending a note duration, similar to the augmentation dot.

A tie is entered using the tilde symbol `~`

>     a2 ~ a

Ties are used either when the note crosses a bar line, or when dots cannot be used to denote the rhythm. Ties should also be used when note values cross larger subdivisions of the measure:

>     \relative c' {
>       r8 c8 ~ c2 r4 |
>       r8^"not" c2 ~ c8 r4
>     }

If you need to tie many notes across bar lines, it may be easier to use automatic note splitting, see Automatic note splitting. This mechanism automatically splits long notes, and ties them across bar lines.

When a tie is applied to a chord, all note heads whose pitches match are connected. When no note heads match, no ties will be created. Chords may be partially tied by placing the tie inside the chord.

>     <c e g> ~ <c e g>
>     <c~ e g~ b> <c e g b>

When a second alternative of a repeat starts with a tied note, you have to specify the repeated tie as follows:

>     \repeat volta 2 { c g <c e>2 ~ }
>     \alternative {
>       % First alternative: following note is tied normally
>       { <c e>2. r4 }
>       % Second alternative: following note has a repeated tie
>       { <c e>2\repeatTie d4 c } }

L.v. ties (laissez vibrer) indicate that notes must not be damped at the end. It is used in notation for piano, harp and other string and percussion instruments. They can be entered as follows:

>     <c f g>1\laissezVibrer

The vertical placement of ties may be controlled, see Predefined commands, or for details, see Direction and placement.

Solid, dotted or dashed ties may be specified, see Predefined commands.

#### Predefined commands

`\tieUp`, `\tieDown`, `\tieNeutral`, `\tieDotted`, `\tieDashed`, `\tieSolid`.

#### Selected Snippets

Using ties with arpeggios

Ties are sometimes used to write out arpeggios. In this case, two tied notes need not be consecutive. This can be achieved by setting the `tieWaitForNote` property to `#t`. The same feature is also useful, for example, to tie a tremolo to a chord, but in principle, it can also be used for ordinary consecutive notes.

>     \relative c' {
>       \set tieWaitForNote = ##t
>       \grace { c16[ ~ e ~ g] ~ } <c, e g>2
>       \repeat tremolo 8 { c32 ~ c' ~ } <c c,>1
>       e8 ~ c ~ a ~ f ~ <e' c a f>2
>       \tieUp
>       c8 ~ a
>       \tieDown
>       \tieDotted
>       g8 ~ c g2
>     }

Engraving ties manually

Ties may be engraved manually by changing the `tie-configuration` property of the `TieColumn` object. The first number indicates the distance from the center of the staff in staff-spaces, and the second number indicates the direction (1 = up, -1 = down).

>     \relative c' {
>       <c e g>2 ~ <c e g>
>       \override TieColumn #'tie-configuration =
>         #'((0.0 . 1) (-2.0 . 1) (-4.0 . 1))
>       <c e g> ~ <c e g>
>     }

#### See also

Music Glossary: tie, laissez vibrer.

Notation Reference: Automatic note splitting.

Snippets: Rhythms.

Internals Reference: LaissezVibrerTie, LaissezVibrerTieColumn, TieColumn, Tie.

#### Known issues and warnings

Switching staves when a tie is active will not produce a slanted tie.

Changing clefs or octavations during a tie is not really well-defined. In these cases, a slur may be preferable.

### 1.2.2 Writing rests

Rests are entered as part of the music in music expressions.

#### Rests

Rests are entered like notes with the note name `r`. Durations longer than a whole rest use the predefined commands shown:

>     \new Staff {
>       % These two lines are just to prettify this example
>       \time 16/1
>       \override Staff.TimeSignature #'stencil = ##f
>       % Print a maxima rest, equal to four breves
>       r\maxima
>       % Print a longa rest, equal to two breves
>       r\longa
>       % Print a breve rest
>       r\breve
>       r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r128
>     }

Whole measure rests, centered in the middle of the measure, must be entered as multi-measure rests. They can be used for a single measure as well as many measures and are discussed in Full measure rests.

To explicitly specify a rest’s vertical position, write a note followed by `\rest`. A rest of the duration of the note will be placed at the staff position where the note would appear. This allows for precise manual formatting of polyphonic music, since the automatic rest collision formatter will not move these rests.

>     a4\rest d4\rest

#### Selected Snippets

Rest styles

Rests may be used in various styles.

>     \layout {
>       indent = 0.0
>       \context {
>         \Staff
>         \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
>       }
>     }

>     \new Staff \relative c {
>       \cadenzaOn
>       \override Staff.Rest #'style = #'mensural
>       r\maxima^\markup \typewriter { mensural }
>       r\longa r\breve r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 s32 s64 s128 s128
>       \bar ""

>       \override Staff.Rest #'style = #'neomensural
>       r\maxima^\markup \typewriter { neomensural }
>       r\longa r\breve r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 s32 s64 s128 s128
>       \bar ""

>       \override Staff.Rest #'style = #'classical
>       r\maxima^\markup \typewriter { classical }
>       r\longa r\breve r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r128 s128
>       \bar ""

>       \override Staff.Rest  #'style = #'default
>       r\maxima^\markup \typewriter { default }
>       r\longa r\breve r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 r32 r64 r128 s128
>     }

#### See also

Music Glossary: breve, longa, maxima.

Notation Reference: Full measure rests.

Snippets: Rhythms.

Internals Reference: Rest.

#### Known issues and warnings

There is no fundamental limit to rest durations (both in terms of longest and shortest), but the number of glyphs is limited: there are rests from 128th to maxima (8 x whole).

#### Invisible rests

An invisible rest (also called a ‘spacer rest’) can be entered like a note with the note name `s`:

>     c4 c s c
>     s2 c

Spacer rests are available only in note mode and chord mode. In other situations, for example, when entering lyrics, `\skip` is used to skip a musical moment. `\skip` requires an explicit duration.

>     <<
>       {
>         a2 \skip2 a2 a2
>       }
>       \new Lyrics {
>         \lyricmode {
>           foo2 \skip 1 bla2
>         }
>       }
>     >>

A spacer rest implicitly causes `Staff` and `Voice` contexts to be created if none exist, just like notes and rests do:

>     s1 s s

`\skip` simply skips musical time; it creates no output of any kind.

>     % This is valid input, but does nothing
>     \skip 1 \skip1 \skip 1

#### See also

Snippets: Rhythms.

Internals Reference: SkipMusic

#### Full measure rests

Rests for one or more full measures are entered like notes with the note name uppercase `R`:

>     % Rest measures contracted to single measure
>     \compressFullBarRests
>     R1*4
>     R1*24
>     R1*4
>     b2^"Tutti" b4 a4

The duration of full-measure rests is identical to the duration notation used for notes. The duration in a multi-measure rest must always be an integral number of measure-lengths, so augmentation dots or fractions must often be used:

>     \compressFullBarRests
>     \time 2/4
>     R1 | R2 |
>     \time 3/4
>     R2. | R2.*2 |
>     \time 13/8
>     R1*13/8 | R1*13/8*12 |
>     \time 10/8
>     R4*5*4 |

A full-measure rest is printed as either a whole or breve rest, centered in the measure, depending on the time signature.

>     \time 4/4
>     R1 |
>     \time 6/4
>     R1*3/2 |
>     \time 8/4
>     R1*2 |

By default a multi-measure rest is expanded in the printed score to show all the rest measures explicitly. Alternatively, a multi-measure rest can be shown as a single measure containing a multi-measure rest symbol, with the number of measures of rest printed above the measure:

>     % Default behavior
>     \time 3/4 r2. | R2.*2 |
>     \time 2/4 R2 |
>     \time 4/4
>     % Rest measures contracted to single measure
>     \compressFullBarRests
>     r1 | R1*17 | R1*4 |
>     % Rest measures expanded
>     \expandFullBarRests
>     \time 3/4
>     R2.*2 |

Markups can be added to multi-measure rests. The predefined command `\fermataMarkup` is provided for adding fermatas.

>     \compressFullBarRests
>     \time 3/4
>     R2.*10^\markup { \italic "ad lib." }
>     R2.^\fermataMarkup

Note: Markups attached to a multi-measure rest are objects of type `MultiMeasureRestText`, not `TextScript`. Overrides must be directed to the correct object, or they will be ignored. See the following example.

>     % This fails, as the wrong object name is specified
>     \override TextScript #'padding = #5
>     R1^"wrong"
>     % This is correct and works
>     \override MultiMeasureRestText #'padding = #5
>     R1^"right"

When a multi-measure rest immediately follows a `\partial` setting, resulting bar-check warnings may not be displayed.

#### Predefined commands

`\textLengthOn`, `\textLengthOff`, `\fermataMarkup`, `\compressFullBarRests`, `\expandFullBarRests`.

#### Selected Snippets

Changing form of multi-measure rests

If there are ten or fewer measures of rests, a series of longa and breve rests (called in German "Kirchenpausen" - church rests) is printed within the staff; otherwise a simple line is shown. This default number of ten may be changed by overriding the `expand-limit` property.

>     \relative c'' {
>       \compressFullBarRests
>       R1*2 | R1*5 | R1*9
>       \override MultiMeasureRest #'expand-limit = #3
>       R1*2 | R1*5 | R1*9
>     }

Positioning multi-measure rests

Unlike ordinary rests, there is no predefined command to change the staff position of a multi-measure rest symbol of either form by attaching it to a note. However, in polyphonic music multi-measure rests in odd-numbered and even-numbered voices are vertically separated. The positioning of multi-measure rests can be controlled as follows:

>     \relative c'' {
>       % Multi-measure rests by default are set under the fourth line
>       R1
>       % They can be moved with an override
>       \override MultiMeasureRest #'staff-position = #-2
>       R1
>       % A value of 0 is the default position;
>       % the following trick moves the rest to the center line
>       \override MultiMeasureRest #'staff-position = #-0.01
>       R1
>       % Multi-measure rests in odd-numbered voices are under the top line
>       << { R1 } \\ { a1 } >>
>       % Multi-measure rests in even-numbered voices are under the bottom line
>       << { c1 } \\ { R1 } >>
>       % They remain separated even in empty measures
>       << { R1 } \\ { R1 } >>
>       % This brings them together even though there are two voices
>       \compressFullBarRests
>       <<
>         \revert MultiMeasureRest #'staff-position
>         { R1*3 }
>         \\
>         \revert MultiMeasureRest #'staff-position
>         { R1*3 }
>       >>
>     }

Multi-measure rest markup

Markups attached to a multi-measure rest will be centered above or below it. Long markups attached to multi-measure rests do not cause the measure to expand. To expand a multi-measure rest to fit the markup, use a spacer rest with an attached markup before the multi-measure rest.

Note that the spacer rest causes a bar line to be inserted. Text attached to a spacer rest in this way is left-aligned to the position where the note would be placed in the measure, but if the measure length is determined by the length of the text, the text will appear to be centered.

>     \relative c' {
>       \compressFullBarRests
>       \textLengthOn
>       s1*0^\markup { [MAJOR GENERAL] }
>       R1*19
>       s1*0_\markup { \italic { Cue: ... it is yours } }
>       s1*0^\markup { A }
>       R1*30^\markup { [MABEL] }
>       \textLengthOff
>       c4^\markup { CHORUS } d f c
>     }

#### See also

Music Glossary: multi-measure rest.

Notation Reference: Durations, Text, Formatting text, Text scripts.

Snippets: Rhythms.

Internals Reference: MultiMeasureRest, MultiMeasureRestNumber, MultiMeasureRestText.

#### Known issues and warnings

If an attempt is made to use fingerings (e.g., `R1*10-4`) to put numbers over multi-measure rests, the fingering numeral (4) may collide with the bar counter numeral (10).

There is no way to automatically condense multiple ordinary rests into a single multi-measure rest.

Multi-measure rests do not take part in rest collisions.

### 1.2.3 Displaying rhythms

#### Time signature

The time signature is set as follows:

>     \time 2/4 c2
>     \time 3/4 c2.

Time signatures are printed at the beginning of a piece and whenever the time signature changes. If a change takes place at the end of a line a warning time signature sign is printed there. This default behavior may be changed, see Visibility of objects.

>     \time 2/4
>     c2 c
>     \break
>     c c
>     \break
>     \time 4/4
>     c c c c

The time signature symbol that is used in 2/2 and 4/4 time can be changed to a numeric style:

>     % Default style
>     \time 4/4 c1
>     \time 2/2 c1
>     % Change to numeric style
>     \numericTimeSignature
>     \time 4/4 c1
>     \time 2/2 c1
>     % Revert to default style
>     \defaultTimeSignature
>     \time 4/4 c1
>     \time 2/2 c1

Mensural time signatures are covered in Mensural time signatures.

#### Predefined commands

`\numericTimeSignature`, `\defaultTimeSignature`.

#### Selected Snippets

Changing the time signature without affecting the beaming

The `\time` command sets the properties `timeSignatureFraction`, `beatLength`, `beatGrouping` and `measureLength` in the `Timing` context, which is normally aliased to `Score`. Changing the value of `timeSignatureFraction` causes the new time signature symbol to be printed without changing any of the other properties:

>     \relative c'' {
>       \time 3/4
>       a16 a a a a a a a a a a a

>       % Change time signature symbol but keep 3/4 beaming
>       % due to unchanged underlying time signature
>       \set Score.timeSignatureFraction = #'(12 . 16)
>       a16 a a a a a a a a a a a

>       \time 12/16
>       % Lose 3/4 beaming now \time has been changed
>       a16 a a a a a a a a a a a
>     }

Compound time signatures

Odd 20th century time signatures (such as "5/8") can often be played as compound time signatures (e.g. "3/8 + 2/8"), which combine two or more inequal metrics. LilyPond can make such music quite easy to read and play, by explicitly printing the compound time signatures and adapting the automatic beaming behavior. (Graphic measure grouping indications can also be added; see the appropriate snippet in this database.)

>     #(define ((compound-time one two num) grob)
>       (grob-interpret-markup grob
>         (markup #:override '(baseline-skip . 0) #:number
>           (#:line (
>               (#:column (one num))
>               #:vcenter "+"
>               (#:column (two num)))))))

>     \relative c' {
>       \override Staff.TimeSignature #'stencil = #(compound-time "2" "3" "8")
>       \time 5/8
>       #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 8 5 8) 1 4)
>       c8 d e fis gis
>       c8 fis, gis e d
>       c8 d e4 gis8
>     }

#### See also

Music Glossary: time signature

Notation Reference: Mensural time signatures, Time administration.

Snippets: Rhythms.

Internals Reference: TimeSignature, Timing_translator.

#### Upbeats

Partial or pick-up measures, such as an anacrusis or upbeat, are entered using the `\partial` command, with the syntax

>     \partial duration

where `duration` is the rhythmic length of the interval before the start of the first complete measure:

>     \partial 4 e4 |
>     a2. c,4 |

The partial measure can be any duration less than a full measure:

>     \partial 8*3 c8 d e |
>     a2. c,4 |

Internally, this is translated into

>     \set Timing.measurePosition = -duration

The property `measurePosition` contains a rational number indicating how much of the measure has passed at this point. Note that this is set to a negative number by the `\partial` command: i.e., `\partial 4` is internally translated to `-4`, meaning “there is a quarter note left in the measure.”

#### See also

Music Glossary: anacrusis.

Notation Reference: Grace notes.

Snippets: Rhythms.

Internal Reference: Timing_translator.

#### Known issues and warnings

The `\partial` command is intended to be used only at the beginning of a piece. If you use it after the beginning, some odd warnings may occur.

#### Unmetered music

Bar lines and bar numbers are calculated automatically. For unmetered music (some cadenzas, for example), this is not desirable. To turn off automatic calculation of bar lines and bar numbers, use the command `\cadenzaOn`, and use `\cadenzaOff` to turn them on again.

    c4 d e d
    \cadenzaOn
    c4 c d8 d d f4 g4.
    \cadenzaOff
    \bar "|"
    d4 e d c

Bar numbering is resumed at the end of the cadenza as if the cadenza were not there:

    % Show all bar numbers
    \override Score.BarNumber #'break-visibility = #all-visible
    c4 d e d
    \cadenzaOn
    c4 c d8 d d f4 g4.
    \cadenzaOff
    \bar "|"
    d4 e d c

#### Predefined commands

`\cadenzaOn`, `\cadenzaOff`.

#### See also

Music Glossary: cadenza.

Notation Reference: Visibility of objects.

Snippets: Rhythms.

#### Known issues and warnings

LilyPond will insert line breaks and page breaks only at a bar line. Unless the unmetered music ends before the end of the staff line, you will need to insert invisible bar lines with

>     \bar ""

to indicate where breaks can occur.

#### Polymetric notation

Polymetric notation is supported, either explicitly or by modifying the visible time signature symbol and scaling the note durations.

Staves with different time signatures, equal measure lengths

This notation can be created by setting a common time signature for each staff but replacing the symbol manually by setting `timeSignatureFraction` to the desired fraction and scaling the printed durations in each staff to the common time signature; see Time signature. The scaling is done with `\scaleDurations`, which is used in a similar way to `\times`, but does not create a tuplet bracket; see Scaling durations.

In this example, music with the time signatures of 3/4, 9/8, and 10/8 are used in parallel. In the second staff, shown durations are multiplied by 2/3, as 2/3 * 9/8 = 3/4, and in the third staff, shown durations are multiplied by 3/5, as 3/5 * 10/8 = 3/4. It will often be necessary to insert beams manually, as the duration scaling affects the autobeaming rules.

>     \relative c' <<
>       \new Staff {
>         \time 3/4
>         c4 c c |
>         c c c |
>       }
>       \new Staff {
>         \time 3/4
>         \set Staff.timeSignatureFraction = #'(9 . 8)
>         \scaleDurations #'(2 . 3)
>         \repeat unfold 6 { c8[ c c] }
>       }
>       \new Staff {
>         \time 3/4
>         \set Staff.timeSignatureFraction = #'(10 . 8)
>         \scaleDurations #'(3 . 5) {
>           \repeat unfold 2 { c8[ c c] }
>           \repeat unfold 2 { c8[ c] } |
>           c4. c4. \times 2/3 { c8[ c c] } c4
>         }
>       }
>     >>

Staves with different time signatures, unequal bar lengths

Each staff can be given its own independent time signature by moving the `Timing_translator` and the `Default_bar_line_engraver` to the `Staff` context.

>     \layout {
>       \context {
>         \Score
>         \remove "Timing_translator"
>         \remove "Default_bar_line_engraver"
>       }
>       \context {
>         \Staff
>         \consists "Timing_translator"
>         \consists "Default_bar_line_engraver"
>       }
>     }

>     % Now each staff has its own time signature.

>     \relative c' <<
>       \new Staff {
>         \time 3/4
>         c4 c c |
>         c c c |
>       }
>       \new Staff {
>         \time 2/4
>         c4 c |
>         c c |
>         c c |
>       }
>       \new Staff {
>         \time 3/8
>         c4. |
>         c8 c c |
>         c4. |
>         c8 c c |
>       }
>     >>

#### Selected Snippets

Compound time signatures

Odd 20th century time signatures (such as "5/8") can often be played as compound time signatures (e.g. "3/8 + 2/8"), which combine two or more inequal metrics. LilyPond can make such music quite easy to read and play, by explicitly printing the compound time signatures and adapting the automatic beaming behavior. (Graphic measure grouping indications can also be added; see the appropriate snippet in this database.)

>     #(define ((compound-time one two num) grob)
>       (grob-interpret-markup grob
>         (markup #:override '(baseline-skip . 0) #:number
>           (#:line (
>               (#:column (one num))
>               #:vcenter "+"
>               (#:column (two num)))))))

>     \relative c' {
>       \override Staff.TimeSignature #'stencil = #(compound-time "2" "3" "8")
>       \time 5/8
>       #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 8 5 8) 1 4)
>       c8 d e fis gis
>       c8 fis, gis e d
>       c8 d e4 gis8
>     }

#### See also

Music Glossary: polymetric, polymetric time signature, meter.

Notation Reference: Time signature, Scaling durations.

Snippets: Rhythms.

Internals Reference: TimeSignature, Timing_translator, Default_bar_line_engraver, Staff.

#### Known issues and warnings

When using different time signatures in parallel, notes at the same moment will be be placed at the same horizontal location. However, the bar lines in the different staves will cause the note spacing to be less regular in each of the individual staves than would be normal without the different time signatures.

#### Automatic note splitting

Long notes which overrun bar lines can be converted automatically to tied notes. This is done by replacing the `Note_heads_engraver` with the `Completion_heads_engraver`. In the following example, notes crossing the bar lines are split and tied.

>     \new Voice \with {
>       \remove "Note_heads_engraver"
>       \consists "Completion_heads_engraver"
>     }

>     { c2. c8 d4 e f g a b c8 c2 b4 a g16 f4 e d c8. c2 }

This engraver splits all running notes at the bar line, and inserts ties. One of its uses is to debug complex scores: if the measures are not entirely filled, then the ties show exactly how much each measure is off.

#### See also

Music Glossary: tie

Learning Manual: Engravers explained, Adding and removing engravers.

Snippets: Rhythms.

Internals Reference: Note_heads_engraver, Completion_heads_engraver, Forbid_line_break_engraver.

#### Known issues and warnings

Not all durations (especially those containing tuplets) can be represented exactly with normal notes and dots, but the `Completion_heads_engraver` will not insert tuplets.

The `Completion_heads_engraver` only affects notes; it does not split rests.

#### Showing melody rhythms

Sometimes you might want to show only the rhythm of a melody. This can be done with the rhythmic staff. All pitches of notes on such a staff are squashed, and the staff itself has a single line

>     <<
>       \new RhythmicStaff {
>         \new Voice = "myRhythm" {
>           \time 4/4
>           c4 e8 f g2
>           r4 g g f
>           g1
>         }
>       }
>       \new Lyrics {
>         \lyricsto "myRhythm" {
>           This is my song
>           I like to sing
>         }
>       }
>     >>

Guitar chord charts often show the strumming rhythms. This can be done with the `Pitch_squash_engraver` and `\improvisationOn`.

>     <<
>       \new ChordNames {
>         \chordmode {
>           c1 f g c
>         }
>       }

>       \new Voice \with {
>         \consists Pitch_squash_engraver
>       } \relative c'' {
>         \improvisationOn
>         c4 c8 c c4 c8 c
>         f4 f8 f f4 f8 f
>         g4 g8 g g4 g8 g
>         c4 c8 c c4 c8 c
>       }
>     >>

#### Predefined commands

`\improvisationOn`, `\improvisationOff`.

#### Selected Snippets

Guitar strum rhythms

For guitar music, it is possible to show strum rhythms, along with melody notes, chord names and fret diagrams.

>     \include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly"
>     <<
>       \new ChordNames {
>         \chordmode {
>           c1 f g c
>         }
>       }
>       \new FretBoards {
>         \chordmode {
>           c1 f g c
>         }
>       }
>       \new Voice \with {
>         \consists "Pitch_squash_engraver"
>       } {
>         \relative c'' {
>           \improvisationOn
>           c4 c8 c c4 c8 c
>           f4 f8 f f4 f8 f
>           g4 g8 g g4 g8 g
>           c4 c8 c c4 c8 c
>         }
>       }
>       \new Voice = "melody" {
>         \relative c'' {
>           c2 e4 e4
>           f2. r4
>           g2. a4
>           e4 c2.
>         }
>       }
>       \new Lyrics {
>         \lyricsto "melody" {
>           This is my song.
>           I like to sing.
>         }
>       }
>     >>

#### See also

Snippets: Rhythms.

Internals Reference: RhythmicStaff, Pitch_squash_engraver.

### 1.2.4 Beams

#### Automatic beams

By default, beams are inserted automatically:

>     \time 2/4 c8 c c c
>     \time 6/8 c c c c8. c16 c8

If these automatic decisions are not satisfactory, beaming can be entered explicitly; see Manual beams. Beams must also be entered manually in the same way if beams are to be extended over rests.

It is possible to define beaming patterns that differ from the defaults. The default beaming rules for most common time signatures are defined in ‘`scm/auto-beam.scm`’. If there are no beaming rules defined for a particular beam’s duration in the time signature being used, its beaming is controlled by the values of three context properties, `measureLength`, `beatLength` and `beatGrouping`. Both the beaming rules and the context properties can be overridden, see Setting automatic beam behavior.

Note: If beams are used to indicate melismata in songs, then automatic beaming should be switched off with `autoBeamOff` and the beams indicated manually.

Automatic beaming may be turned off and on with `\autoBeamOff` and `\autoBeamOn` commands:

>     c4 c8 c8. c16 c8. c16 c8
>     \autoBeamOff
>     c4 c8 c8. c16 c8.
>     \autoBeamOn
>     c16 c8

#### Predefined commands

`\autoBeamOff`, `\autoBeamOn`.

#### Selected Snippets

Beams across line breaks

Line breaks are normally forbidden when beams cross bar lines. This behavior can be changed as shown:

>     \relative c'' {
>       \override Beam #'breakable = ##t
>       c8 c[ c] c[ c] c[ c] c[ \break
>       c8] c[ c] c[ c] c[ c] c
>     }

Changing beam knee gap

Kneed beams are inserted automatically when a large gap is detected between the note heads. This behavior can be tuned through the `auto-knee-gap` property. A kneed beam is drawn if the gap is larger than the value of `auto-knee-gap` plus the width of the beam object (which depends on the duration of the notes and the slope of the beam). By default `auto-knee-gap` is set to 5.5 staff spaces.

>     {
>       f8 f''8 f8 f''8
>       \override Beam #'auto-knee-gap = #6
>       f8 f''8 f8 f''8
>     }

#### See also

Notation Reference: Manual beams, Setting automatic beam behavior.

Installed Files: ‘`scm/auto-beam.scm`’.

Snippets: Rhythms.

Internals Reference: Beam.

#### Known issues and warnings

Automatically kneed cross-staff beams cannot be used together with hidden staves. See Hiding staves.

Beams can collide with note heads and accidentals in other voices

#### Setting automatic beam behavior

The placement of automatic beams is determined by the rules described in Automatic beams. There are two mutually exclusive ways in which these rules may be modified. The first, modifying the grouping of beats, applies to uncommon time signatures, i.e. those for which there are no predefined rules defining the beam end points. The second method, modifying the specification of the beam end points, can be used for any time signature. This second method must be used for those time signatures and beam durations combinations for which beam ending rules are pre-defined, unless these have all been reverted. There are predefined rules for time signatures of 3/2, 3/4, 4/4, 2/4, 4/8, 4/16, 6/8, 9/8 and 12/8.

Modifying the grouping of beats

If there are no beam-ending rules defined for the beam duration of a particular beam in the time signature in use, its beaming is controlled by three context properties: `measureLength`, `beatLength` and `beatGrouping`. These properties may be set in the `Score`, `Staff` or `Voice` contexts to delimit their scope. The default values are set while processing `\time` commands, so the `\set` commands must be placed after all `\time` commands.

These determine the beaming as follows:

Beams may begin anywhere (unless a beam is already active). Beams end at a time determined by the values of `beatGrouping` and `beatLength`, as follows:

- If `beatGrouping` and `beatLength` are consistent with `measureLength`, `beatGrouping` is used to determine the end points of beams.
- If `beatGrouping` and `beatLength` are inconsistent with `measureLength`, `beatLength` is used to determine the end points of beams.

Note: These three properties become effective for a particular beam only if there are no beam-ending rules predefined for that beam’s duration in the time signature in use, or if these beam-ending rules have all been reverted.

By default the `measureLength` and `beatLength` are derived from the time signature set by the `\time` command. The `measureLength` is set to be exactly the same length as the measure length given by the time signature, and the `beatLength` is set to be the same as one over the denominator of the time signature.

The default value of `beatGrouping` is taken from a table in ‘`scm/music-functions.scm`’. To find this, see Other sources of information. It defines the beat grouping for 5/8, 6/8, 8/8, 9/8 and 12/8 time signatures.

Both `measureLength` and `beatLength` are moments, units of musical duration. A quantity of type moment is created by the scheme function `ly:make-moment`. For more information about this function, see Time administration.

`beatGrouping` is a list of integers giving the number of beats in each group.

#### Selected Snippets

Grouping beats

Beaming patterns may be altered with the `beatGrouping` property:

>     \relative c'' {
>       \time 5/16
>       #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 5 16) 5 16)
>       \set beatGrouping = #'(2 3)
>       c8^"(2+3)" c16 c8
>       \set beatGrouping = #'(3 2)
>       c8^"(3+2)" c16 c8
>     }

Specifying context with beatGrouping

By specifying the context, the effect of `beatGrouping` can be limited to the context specified, and the values which may have been set in higher-level contexts can be overridden. The `\set` commands must be placed after all `\time` commands:

>     \score {
>       \new Staff <<
>         \time 7/8
>         \new Voice {
>           \relative c'' {
>             \set Staff.beatGrouping = #'(2 3 2)
>             a8 a a a a a a
>           }
>         }
>         \new Voice {
>           \relative c' {
>             \voiceTwo
>             \set beatGrouping = #'(1 3 3)
>             f8 f f f f f f
>           }
>         }
>       >>
>     }

Using beatLength and beatGrouping

The property `measureLength` determines where bar lines should be inserted and, with `beatLength` and `beatGrouping`, how automatic beams should be generated for beam durations and time signatures for which no beam-ending rules are defined. This example shows several ways of controlling beaming by setting these properties. The explanations are shown as comments in the code.

>     \relative c'' {
>       \time 3/4
>       % The default in 3/4 time is to beam in three groups
>       % each of a quarter note length
>       a16 a a a a a a a a a a a

>       \time 12/16
>       % No auto-beaming is defined for 12/16
>       a16 a a a a a a a a a a a

>       \time 3/4
>       % Change time signature symbol, but retain underlying 3/4 beaming
>       \set Score.timeSignatureFraction = #'(12 . 16)
>       a16 a a a a a a a a a a a

>       % The 3/4 time default grouping of (1 1 1) and beatLength of 1/8
>       % are not consistent with a measureLength of 3/4, so the beams
>       % are grouped at beatLength intervals
>       \set Score.beatLength = #(ly:make-moment 1 8)
>       a16 a a a a a a a a a a a

>       % Specify beams in groups of (3 3 2 3) 1/16th notes
>       % 3+3+2+3=11, and 11*1/16<>3/4, so beatGrouping does not apply,
>       % and beams are grouped at beatLength (1/16) intervals
>       \set Score.beatLength = #(ly:make-moment 1 16)
>       \set Score.beatGrouping = #'(3 3 2 3)
>       a16 a a a a a a a a a a a

>       % Specify beams in groups of (3 4 2 3) 1/16th notes
>       % 3+4+2+3=12, and 12*1/16=3/4, so beatGrouping applies
>       \set Score.beatLength = #(ly:make-moment 1 16)
>       \set Score.beatGrouping = #'(3 4 2 3)
>       a16 a a a a a a a a a a a
>     }

Sub-dividing beams

The beams of consecutive 16th (or shorter) notes are, by default, not sub-divided. That is, the three (or more) beams stretch unbroken over entire groups of notes. This behavior can be modified to sub-divide the beams into sub-groups by setting the property `subdivideBeams`. When set, multiple beams will be sub-divided at intervals defined by the current value of `beatLength` by reducing the multiple beams to just one beam between the sub-groups. Note that `beatLength` defaults to one over the denominator of the current time signature if not set explicitly. It must be set to a fraction giving the duration of the beam sub-group using the `make-moment` function, as shown here:

>     \relative c'' {
>       c32[ c c c c c c c]
>       \set subdivideBeams = ##t
>       c32[ c c c c c c c]

>       % Set beam sub-group length to an eighth note
>       \set beatLength = #(ly:make-moment 1 8)
>       c32[ c c c c c c c]

>       % Set beam sub-group length to a sixteenth note
>       \set beatLength = #(ly:make-moment 1 16)
>       c32[ c c c c c c c]
>     }

Conducting signs, measure grouping signs

Options to group beats within a bar are available through the Scheme function `set-time-signature`, which takes three arguments: the number of beats, the beat length, and the internal grouping of beats in the measure. If the `Measure_grouping_engraver` is included, the function will also create `MeasureGrouping` signs. Such signs ease reading rhythmically complex modern music. In the example, the 9/8 measure is subdivided in 2, 2, 2 and 3. This is passed to `set-time-signature` as the third argument: `'(2 2 2 3)`:

>     \score {
>       \relative c'' {
>         #(set-time-signature 9 8 '(2 2 2 3))
>         #(revert-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 9 8) 3 8)
>         #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 8 9 8) 1 4)
>         #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 8 9 8) 2 4)
>         #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 8 9 8) 3 4)
>         g8 g d d g g a( bes g) |
>         #(set-time-signature 5 8 '(3 2))
>         a4. g4
>       }
>       \layout {
>         \context {
>           \Staff
>           \consists "Measure_grouping_engraver"
>         }
>       }
>     }

Modifying the beam end points

In common time signatures, automatic beams can start on any note but can end at only a few positions within the measure, namely at durations specified by the properties in `autoBeamSettings`. These properties consist of a list of rules defining where beams can end. The default `autoBeamSettings` rules are defined in ‘`scm/auto-beam.scm`’. To find this, see Other sources of information.

This method must be used for the time signatures for which beam-ending rules are defined by default, unless these have all been reverted. It is also particularly suitable for many other time signatures if the time signature of the measures changes frequently, or if the beaming should be different for different beam durations.

In order to add a rule to the list, use

>     #(override-auto-beam-setting
>       '(beam-limit
>         beam-numerator  beam-denominator
>         time-signature-numerator time-signature-denominator)
>       moment-numerator moment-denominator [context])

where

- `beam-limit` is the type of automatic beam limit defined. This can be either `begin` or `end` but only `end` is effective.
- `beam-numerator/beam-denominator` is the beam duration to which the rule is to apply. A beam is considered to have the duration of its shortest note. Set `beam-numerator` and `beam-denominator` to `'*'` to have this rule apply to beams of any duration.
- `time-signature-numerator/time-signature-denominator` specifies the time signature to which this rule should apply. If `time-signature-numerator` and `time-signature-denominator` are set to `'*'` this rule will apply in any time signature.
- `monent-numerator/moment-denominator` is the position in the bar at which the beam should end.
- `context` is optional, and it specifies the context at which the change should be made. The default is `'Voice`.

  `#(score-override-auto-beam-setting '(A B C D) E F)` is equivalent to `#(override-auto-beam-setting '(A B C D) E F 'Score)`.

For example, if automatic beams should always end on the first quarter note, whatever the time signature or beam duration, use

>     a8 a a a a a a a
>     #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * * *) 1 4)
>     a8 a a a a a a a

You can force the beam settings to take effect only on beams whose shortest note is a certain duration

>     \time 2/4
>     % end 1/16 beams for all time signatures at the 1/16 moment
>     #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 16 * *) 1 16)
>     a16 a a a a a a a |
>     a32 a a a a16 a a a a a |
>     % end 1/32 beams for all time signatures at the 1/16 moment
>     #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 32 * *) 1 16)
>     a32 a a a a16 a a a a a |

You can force the beam settings to take effect only in certain time signatures

>     \time 5/8
>     % end beams of all durations in 5/8 time signature at the 2/8 moment
>     #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 5 8) 2 8)
>     c8 c d d d
>     \time 4/4
>     e8 e f f e e d d
>     \time 5/8
>     c8 c d d d

When multiple voices are used the `Staff` context must be specified if the beaming is to be applied to all voices in the staff:

>     \time 7/8
>     % rhythm 3-1-1-2
>     % Context not specified - does not work correctly
>     #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 7 8) 3 8)
>     #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 7 8) 4 8)
>     #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 7 8) 5 8)
>     << {a8 a a a16 a a a a8 a} \\ {f4. f8 f f f} >>

>     % Works correctly with context specified
>     #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 7 8) 3 8 'Staff)
>     #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 7 8) 4 8 'Staff)
>     #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 7 8) 5 8 'Staff)
>     << {a8 a a a16 a a a a8 a} \\ {f4. f8 f f f} >>

Note: If any unexpected beam behavior occurs, check the default automatic beam settings in ‘`scm/auto-beam.scm`’ for possible interference, because the beam endings defined there will still apply in addition to your own.

Any unwanted or conflicting default endings must be reverted for your time signature(s). Existing auto-beam rules are removed by using

>     #(revert-auto-beam-setting
>       '(beam-limit
>         beam-numerator  beam-denominator
>         time-signature-numerator time-signature-denominator)
>       moment-numerator moment-denominator [context])

`beam-limit`, `beam-numerator`, `beam-denominator`, `time-signature-numerator`, `time-signature-denominator`, `moment-numerator`, `moment-denominator` and `context` are the same as above.

>     \time 4/4
>     a16 a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a
>     % undo a rule ending 1/16 beams in 4/4 time at 1/4 moment
>     #(revert-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 16 4 4) 1 4)
>     a16 a a a a a a a a a a a a a a a

The rule in a `revert-auto-beam-setting` statement must exactly match the original rule. That is, no wildcard expansion is taken into account.

>     \time 1/4
>     #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 16 1 4) 1 8)
>     a16 a a a
>     #(revert-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 16 * *) 1 8) % this won't revert it!
>     a a a a
>     #(revert-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 16 1 4) 1 8) % this will
>     a a a a

#### Selected Snippets

Beam grouping in 7/8 time

There are no default automatic beam groupings specified for 7/8 time, so if automatic beams are required the grouping must be specified. For example, to group all beams 2-3-2 in 7/8 time, specify beam endings at 2/8 and 5/8:

>     \relative c'' {
>       \time 7/8
>       % rhythm 2-3-2
>       a8 a a a a a a
>       #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 7 8) 2 8)
>       #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 7 8) 5 8)
>       a8 a a a a a a
>     }

Reverting default beam endings

To typeset beams grouped `3-4-3-2` in 12/8 it is necessary first to override the default beam endings in 12/8, and then to set up the new beaming endings:

>     \relative c'' {
>       \time 12/8

>       % Default beaming
>       a8 a a a a a a a a a a a

>       % Revert default values in scm/auto-beam.scm for 12/8 time
>       #(revert-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 12 8) 3 8)
>       #(revert-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 12 8) 3 4)
>       #(revert-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 12 8) 9 8)
>       a8 a a a a a a a a a a a

>       % Set new values for beam endings
>       #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 12 8) 3 8)
>       #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 12 8) 7 8)
>       #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 12 8) 10 8)
>       a8 a a a a a a a a a a a
>     }

Beam endings in Score context

Beam-ending rules specified in the `Score` context apply to all staves, but can be modified at both `Staff` and `Voice` levels:

>     \relative c'' {
>       \time 5/4
>       % Set default beaming for all staves
>       #(score-override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 5 4) 3 8)
>       #(score-override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 5 4) 7 8)
>       <<
>         \new Staff {
>           c8 c c c c c c c c c
>         }
>         \new Staff {
>           % Modify beaming for just this staff
>           #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 5 4) 6 8 'Staff)
>           #(revert-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 5 4) 7 8 'Staff)
>           c8 c c c c c c c c c
>         }
>         \new Staff {
>           % Inherit beaming from Score context
>           <<
>             {
>               \voiceOne
>               c8 c c c c c c c c c
>             }
>             % Modify beaming for this voice only
>             \new Voice {
>               \voiceTwo
>               #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 5 4) 6 8)
>               #(revert-auto-beam-setting '(end * * 5 4) 7 8)
>               a8 a a a a a a a a a
>             }
>           >>
>         }
>       >>
>     }

#### Predefined commands

`\autoBeamOff`, `\autoBeamOn`.

#### Known issues and warnings

If a score ends while an automatic beam has not been ended and is still accepting notes, this last beam will not be typeset at all. The same holds for polyphonic voices, entered with `<< … \\ … >>`. If a polyphonic voice ends while an automatic beam is still accepting notes, it is not typeset.

#### See also

Snippets: Rhythms.

#### Manual beams

In some cases it may be necessary to override the automatic beaming algorithm. For example, the autobeamer will not put beams over rests or bar lines, and in choral scores the beaming is often set to follow the meter of the lyrics rather than the notes. Such beams can be specified manually by marking the begin and end point with `[` and `]`

>     {
>       r4 r8[ g' a r8] r8 g[ | a] r8
>     }

Individual notes may be marked with `\noBeam` to prevent them from being beamed:

>     \time 2/4 c8 c\noBeam c c

Even more strict manual control with the beams can be achieved by setting the properties `stemLeftBeamCount` and `stemRightBeamCount`. They specify the number of beams to draw on the left and right side, respectively, of the next note. If either property is set, its value will be used only once, and then it is erased. In this example, the last `f` is printed with only one beam on the left side, i.e., the eighth-note beam of the group as a whole.

>     a8[ r16 f g a]
>     a8[ r16
>     \set stemLeftBeamCount = #2
>     \set stemRightBeamCount = #1
>     f
>     \set stemLeftBeamCount = #1
>     g a]

#### Selected Snippets

Flat flags and beam nibs

Flat flags on lone notes and beam nibs at the ends of beamed figures are both possible with a combination of `stemLeftBeamCount`, `stemRightBeamCount` and paired `[]` beam indicators.

For right-pointing flat flags on lone notes, use paired `[]` beam indicators and set `stemLeftBeamCount` to zero (see Example 1).

For left-pointing flat flags, set `stemRightBeamCount` instead (Example 2).

For right-pointing nibs at the end of a run of beamed notes, set `stemRightBeamCount` to a positive value. And for left-pointing nibs at the start of a run of beamed notes, set `stemLeftBeamCount` instead (Example 3).

Sometimes it may make sense for a lone note surrounded by rests to carry both a left- and right-pointing flat flag. Do this with paired `[]` beam indicators alone (Example 4).

(Note that `\set stemLeftBeamCount` is always equivalent to `\once \set`. In other words, the beam count settings are not "sticky", so the pair of flat flags attached to the lone `c'16[]` in the last example have nothing to do with the `\set` two notes prior.)

>     \score {
>       <<
>         % Example 1
>         \new RhythmicStaff {
>           \set stemLeftBeamCount = #0
>           c16[]
>           r8.
>         }

>         % Example 2
>         \new RhythmicStaff {
>           r8.
>           \set stemRightBeamCount = #0
>           c16[]
>         }

>         % Example 3
>         \new RhythmicStaff {
>           c16 c
>           \set stemRightBeamCount = #2
>           c16 r r
>           \set stemLeftBeamCount = #2
>           c16 c c
>         }

>         % Example 4
>         \new RhythmicStaff {
>           c16 c
>           \set stemRightBeamCount = #2
>           c16 r
>           c16[]
>           r16
>           \set stemLeftBeamCount = #2
>           c16 c
>         }
>       >>
>     }

#### Feathered beams

Feathered beams are used to indicate that a small group of notes should be played at an increasing (or decreasing) tempo, without changing the overall tempo of the piece. The extent of the feathered beam must be indicated manually using `[` and `]`, and the beam feathering is turned on by specifying a direction to the `Beam` property `grow-direction`.

If the placement of the notes and the sound in the MIDI output is to reflect the ritardando or accelerando indicated by the feathered beam the notes must be grouped as a music expression delimited by braces and preceded by a `featheredDurations` command which specifies the ratio between the durations of the first and last notes in the group.

The square brackets show the extent of the beam and the braces show which notes are to have their durations modified. Normally these would delimit the same group of notes, but this is not required: the two commands are independent.

In the following example the eight 16th notes occupy exactly the same time as a half note, but the first note is one half as long as the last one, with the intermediate notes gradually lengthening. The first four 32nd notes gradually speed up, while the last four 32nd notes are at a constant tempo.

>     \override Beam #'grow-direction = #LEFT
>     \featherDurations #(ly:make-moment 2 1)
>     { c16[ c c c c c c c] }
>     \override Beam #'grow-direction = #RIGHT
>     \featherDurations #(ly:make-moment 2 3)
>     { c32[ d e f] }
>     % revert to non-feathered beams
>     \override Beam #'grow-direction = #'()
>     { g32[ a b c] }

The spacing in the printed output represents the note durations only approximately, but the MIDI output is exact.

#### Known issues and warnings

The `\featherDurations` command only works with very short music snippets, and when numbers in the fraction are small.

#### See also

Snippets: Rhythms.

### 1.2.5 Bars

#### Bar lines

Bar lines delimit measures, and are also used to indicate repeats. Normally, simple bar lines are automatically inserted into the printed output at places based on the current time signature.

The simple bar lines inserted automatically can be changed to other types with the `\bar` command. For example, a closing double bar line is usually placed at the end of a piece:

>     e4 d c2 \bar "|."

It is not invalid if the final note in a measure does not end on the automatically entered bar line: the note is assumed to carry over into the next measure. But if a long sequence of such carry-over measures appears the music can appear compressed or even flowing off the page. This is because automatic line breaks happen only at the end of complete measures, i.e., where all notes end before the end of a measure.

Note: An incorrect duration can cause line breaks to be inhibited, leading to a line of highly compressed music or music which flows off the page.

Line breaks are also permitted at manually inserted bar lines even within incomplete measures. To allow a line break without printing a bar line, use

>     \bar ""

This will insert an invisible bar line and allow (but not force) a line break to occur at this point. The bar number counter is not increased. To force a line break see Line breaking.

This and other special bar lines may be inserted manually at any point. When they coincide with the end of a measure they replace the simple bar line which would have been inserted there automatically. When they do not coincide with the end of a measure the specified bar line is inserted at that point in the printed output. Such insertions do not affect the calculation and placement of subsequent automatic bar lines.

The simple bar line and five types of double bar line are available for manual insertion:

>     f1 \bar "|" g \bar "||" a \bar ".|" b \bar ".|." c \bar "|.|" d \bar "|." e

together with dotted and dashed bar lines:

>     f1 \bar ":" g \bar "dashed" a

and five types of repeat bar line:

>     f1 \bar "|:" g \bar ":|:" a \bar ":|.|:" b \bar ":|.:" c \bar ":|" d

Although the bar line types signifying repeats may be inserted manually they do not in themselves cause LilyPond to recognize a repeated section. Such repeated sections are better entered using the various repeat commands (see Repeats), which automatically print the appropriate bar lines.

In addition, you can specify `"||:"`, which is equivalent to `"|:"` except at line breaks, where it gives a double bar line at the end of the line and a start repeat at the beginning of the next line.

>     \override Score.RehearsalMark #'padding = #3
>     c c c c
>     \bar "||:"
>     c c c c \break
>     \bar "||:"
>     c c c c

In scores with many staves, a `\bar` command in one staff is automatically applied to all staves. The resulting bar lines are connected between different staves of a `StaffGroup`, `PianoStaff`, or `GrandStaff`.

>     <<
>       \new StaffGroup <<
>         \new Staff {
>           e'4 d'
>           \bar "||"
>           f' e'
>         }
>         \new Staff { \clef bass c4 g e g }
>       >>
>       \new Staff { \clef bass c2 c2 }
>     >>

#### Selected Snippets

The command `\bar` bartype is a shortcut for `\set Timing.whichBar =` bartype. A bar line is created whenever the `whichBar` property is set.

The default bar type used for automatically inserted bar lines is `"|"`. This may be changed at any time with `\set Timing.defaultBarType =` bartype.

#### See also

Notation Reference: Line breaking, Repeats, Grouping staves.

Snippets: Rhythms.

Internals Reference: BarLine (created at Staff level), SpanBar (across staves), Timing_translator (for Timing properties).

#### Bar numbers

Bar numbers are typeset by default at the start of every line except the first line. The number itself is stored in the `currentBarNumber` property, which is normally updated automatically for every measure. It may also be set manually:

>     c1 c c c
>     \break
>     \set Score.currentBarNumber = #50
>     c1 c c c

#### Selected Snippets

Bar numbers can be typeset at regular intervals instead of just at the beginning of every line. To do this the default behavior must be overridden to permit bar numbers to be printed at places other than the start of a line. This is controlled by the `break-visibility` property of `BarNumber`. This takes three values which may be set to `#t` or `#f` to specify whether the corresponding bar number is visible or not. The order of the three values is `end of line visible`, `middle of line visible`, `beginning of line visible`. In the following example bar numbers are printed at all possible places:

>     \override Score.BarNumber #'break-visibility = #'#(#t #t #t)
>     \set Score.currentBarNumber = #11
>     \bar ""  % Permit first bar number to be printed
>     c1 c c c
>     \break
>     c c c c

and here the bar numbers are printed every two measures except at the end of the line:

>     \override Score.BarNumber #'break-visibility = #'#(#f #t #t)
>     \set Score.currentBarNumber = #11
>     \bar ""  % Permit first bar number to be printed
>     % Print a bar number every second measure
>     \set Score.barNumberVisibility = #(every-nth-bar-number-visible 2)
>     c1 c c c c
>     \break
>     c c c c c

The size of the bar number may be changed. This is illustrated in the following example, which also shows how to enclose bar numbers in boxes and circles, and shows an alternative way of specifying `#(#f #t #t)` for `break-visibility`.

>     % Prevent bar numbers at the end of a line and permit them elsewhere
>     \override Score.BarNumber #'break-visibility
>       = #end-of-line-invisible

>     % Increase the size of the bar number by 2
>     \override Score.BarNumber #'font-size = #2
>     \repeat unfold 3 { c1 } \bar "|"

>     % Draw a box round the following bar number(s)
>     \override Score.BarNumber  #'stencil
>       = #(make-stencil-boxer 0.1 0.25 ly:text-interface::print)
>     \repeat unfold 3 { c1 } \bar "|"

>     % Draw a circle round the following bar number(s)
>     \override Score.BarNumber  #'stencil
>       = #(make-stencil-circler 0.1 0.25 ly:text-interface::print)
>     \repeat unfold 4 { c1 } \bar "|."

Bar numbers by default are left-aligned to their parent object. This is usually the left edge of a line or, if numbers are printed within a line, the left bar line of the measure. The numbers may also be positioned directly on the bar line or right-aligned to the bar line:

>     \set Score.currentBarNumber = #111
>     \override Score.BarNumber #'break-visibility = #'#(#t #t #t)
>     % Increase the size of the bar number by 2
>     \override Score.BarNumber #'font-size = #2
>     % Print a bar number every second measure
>     \set Score.barNumberVisibility = #(every-nth-bar-number-visible 2)
>     c1 c1
>     % Center-align bar numbers
>     \override Score.BarNumber #'self-alignment-X = #0
>     c1 c1
>     % Right-align bar numbers
>     \override Score.BarNumber #'self-alignment-X = #-1
>     c1 c1

Bar numbers can be removed entirely by removing the `Bar_number_engraver` from the `Score` context.

>     \layout {
>       \context {
>         \Score
>         \remove "Bar_number_engraver"
>       }
>     }
>     \relative c''{
>       c4 c c c \break
>       c4 c c c
>     }

#### See also

Snippets: Rhythms.

Internals Reference: BarNumber.

#### Known issues and warnings

Bar numbers may collide with the top of the StaffGroup bracket, if there is one. To solve this, the `padding` property of BarNumber can be used to position the number correctly.

#### Bar and bar number checks

Bar checks help detect errors in the entered durations. A bar check may be entered using the bar symbol, `|`, at any place where a bar line is expected to fall. If bar check lines are encountered at other places, a list of warnings is printed in the log file, showing the line numbers and lines in which the bar checks failed. In the next example, the second bar check will signal an error.

>     \time 3/4 c2 e4 | g2 |

Bar checks can also be used in lyrics, for example

>     \lyricmode {
>       \time 2/4
>       Twin -- kle | Twin -- kle |
>     }

An incorrect duration can result in a completely garbled score, especially if the score is polyphonic, so a good place to start correcting input is by scanning for failed bar checks and incorrect durations.

If successive bar checks are off by the same musical interval, only the first warning message is displayed. This allows the warning to focus on the source of the timing error.

It is also possible to redefine the action taken when a bar check or pipe symbol, `|`, is encountered in the input, so that it does something other than a bar check. This is done by assigning a music expression to `pipeSymbol`. In the following example `|` is set to insert a double bar line wherever it appears in the input, rather than checking for end of bar.

>     pipeSymbol = \bar "||"
>     {
>       c'2 c'2 |
>       c'2 c'2
>       c'2 | c'2
>       c'2 c'2
>     }

When copying large pieces of music, it can be helpful to check that the LilyPond bar number corresponds to the original that you are entering from. This can be checked with `\barNumberCheck`, for example,

    \barNumberCheck #123

will print a warning if the `currentBarNumber` is not 123 when it is processed.

#### See also

Snippets: Rhythms.

#### Rehearsal marks

To print a rehearsal mark, use the `\mark` command

>     c1 \mark \default
>     c1 \mark \default
>     c1 \mark #8
>     c1 \mark \default
>     c1 \mark \default

The letter ‘I’ is skipped in accordance with engraving traditions. If you wish to include the letter ‘I’, then use

>     \set Score.markFormatter = #format-mark-alphabet

The mark is incremented automatically if you use `\mark \default`, but you can also use an integer argument to set the mark manually. The value to use is stored in the property `rehearsalMark`.

The style is defined by the property `markFormatter`. It is a function taking the current mark (an integer) and the current context as argument. It should return a markup object. In the following example, `markFormatter` is set to a pre-defined procedure. After a few measures, it is set to a procedure that produces a boxed number.

>     \set Score.markFormatter = #format-mark-numbers
>     c1 \mark \default
>     c1 \mark \default
>     \set Score.markFormatter = #format-mark-box-numbers
>     c1 \mark \default
>     \set Score.markFormatter = #format-mark-circle-numbers
>     c1 \mark \default
>     \set Score.markFormatter = #format-mark-circle-letters
>     c1

The file ‘`scm/translation-functions.scm`’ contains the definitions of `format-mark-numbers` (the default format), `format-mark-box-numbers`, `format-mark-letters` and `format-mark-box-letters`. These can be used as inspiration for other formatting functions.

You may use `format-mark-barnumbers`, `format-mark-box-barnumbers`, and `format-mark-circle-barnumbers` to get bar numbers instead of incremented numbers or letters.

Other styles of rehearsal mark can be specified manually

>     \mark "A1"

`Score.markFormatter` does not affect marks specified in this manner. However, it is possible to apply a `\markup` to the string.

>     \mark \markup{ \box A1 }

Music glyphs (such as the segno sign) may be printed inside a `\mark`

>     c1 \mark \markup { \musicglyph #"scripts.segno" }
>     c1 \mark \markup { \musicglyph #"scripts.coda" }
>     c1 \mark \markup { \musicglyph #"scripts.ufermata" }
>     c1

See The Feta font, for a list of symbols which may be printed with `\musicglyph`.

For common tweaks to the positioning of rehearsal marks, see Formatting text.

#### See also

Notation Reference: The Feta font, Formatting text.

Installed Files: ‘`scm/translation-functions.scm`’ contains the definition of `format-mark-numbers` and `format-mark-letters`. They can be used as inspiration for other formatting functions.

Snippets: Rhythms.

Internals Reference: RehearsalMark.

### 1.2.6 Special rhythmic concerns

#### Grace notes

Grace notes are ornaments that are written out. Grace notes are printed in a smaller font and take up no logical time in a measure.

>     c4 \grace c16 c4
>     \grace { c16[ d16] } c2

Lilypond also supports two special types of grace notes, the acciaccatura–an unmeasured grace note indicated by a slurred small note with a slashed stem–and the appoggiatura, which takes a fixed fraction of the main note and appears in small print without a slash.

>     \grace c8 b4
>     \acciaccatura d8 c4
>     \appoggiatura e8 d4
>     \acciaccatura { g16[ f] } e4

The placement of grace notes is synchronized between different staves. In the following example, there are two sixteenth grace notes for every eighth grace note

>     << \new Staff { e2 \grace { c16[ d e f] } e2 }
>        \new Staff { c2 \grace { g8[ b] } c2 } >>

If you want to end a note with a grace, use the `\afterGrace` command. It takes two arguments: the main note, and the grace notes following the main note.

>     c1 \afterGrace d1 { c16[ d] } c1

This will put the grace notes after a space lasting 3/4 of the length of the main note. The default fraction 3/4 can be changed by setting `afterGraceFraction`. The following example shows the results from setting the space at the default, at 15/16, and finally at 1/2 of the main note.

>     <<
>       \new Staff {
>         c1 \afterGrace d1 { c16[ d] } c1
>       }
>       \new Staff {
>         #(define afterGraceFraction (cons 15 16))
>         c1 \afterGrace d1 { c16[ d] } c1
>       }
>       \new Staff {
>         #(define afterGraceFraction (cons 1 2))
>         c1 \afterGrace d1 { c16[ d] } c1
>       }
>     >>

The space between the main note and the grace note may also be specified using spacers. The following example places the grace note after a space lasting 7/8 of the main note.

>     \new Voice {
>       << { d1^\trill_( }
>          { s2 s4. \grace { c16[ d] } } >>
>       c1)
>     }

A `\grace` music expression will introduce special typesetting settings, for example, to produce smaller type, and set directions. Hence, when introducing layout tweaks to override the special settings, they should be placed inside the grace expression. The overrides should also be reverted inside the grace expression. Here, the grace note’s default stem direction is overriden and then reverted.

>     \new Voice {
>       \acciaccatura {
>         \stemDown
>         f16->
>         \stemNeutral
>       }
>       g4 e c2
>     }

#### Selected Snippets

The slash through the stem found in acciaccaturas can be applied in other situations:

>     \relative c'' {
>       \override Stem #'stroke-style = #"grace"
>       c8( d2) e8( f4)
>     }

The layout of grace expressions can be changed throughout the music using the function `add-grace-property`. The following example undefines the `Stem` direction for this grace, so that stems do not always point up.

>     \relative c'' {
>       \new Staff {
>         #(add-grace-property 'Voice 'Stem 'direction ly:stem::calc-direction)
>         #(remove-grace-property 'Voice 'Stem 'direction)
>         \new Voice {
>            \acciaccatura { f16 } g4
>            \grace { d16[ e] } f4
>            \appoggiatura { a,32[ b c d] } e2
>         }
>       }
>     }

Another option is to change the variables `startGraceMusic`, `stopGraceMusic`, `startAcciaccaturaMusic`, `stopAcciaccaturaMusic`, `startAppoggiaturaMusic`, `stopAppoggiaturaMusic`. The default values of these can be seen in the file `ly/grace-init.ly`. By redefining them other effects may be obtained.

Grace notes may be forced to align with regular notes in other staves:

>     \relative c'' {
>       <<
>         \override Score.SpacingSpanner #'strict-grace-spacing = ##t
>         \new Staff {
>           c4
>           \afterGrace c4 { c16[ c8 c16] }
>           c4 r
>         }
>         \new Staff {
>           c16 c c c c c c c c4 r
>         }
>       >>
>     }

#### See also

Music Glossary: grace notes, acciaccatura, appoggiatura.

Installed Files: ‘`ly/grace-init.ly`’.

Snippets: Rhythms.

Internals Reference: GraceMusic.

#### Known issues and warnings

A multi-note beamed acciaccatura is printed without a slash, and looks exactly the same as a multi-note beamed appoggiatura.

Grace note synchronization can also lead to surprises. Staff notation, such as key signatures, bar lines, etc., are also synchronized. Take care when you mix staves with grace notes and staves without, for example,

>     << \new Staff { e4 \bar "|:" \grace c16 d2. }
>        \new Staff { c4 \bar "|:" d2. } >>

This can be remedied by inserting grace skips of the corresponding durations in the other staves. For the above example

>     << \new Staff { e4 \bar "|:" \grace c16 d2. }
>        \new Staff { c4 \bar "|:" \grace s16 d2. } >>

Grace sections should only be used within sequential music expressions. Nesting or juxtaposing grace sections is not supported, and might produce crashes or other errors.

#### Aligning to cadenzas

In an orchestral context, cadenzas present a special problem: when constructing a score that includes a measured cadenza or other solo passage, all other instruments should skip just as many notes as the length of the cadenza, otherwise they will start too soon or too late.

One solution to this problem is to use the functions `mmrest-of-length` and `skip-of-length`. These Scheme functions take a defined piece of music as an argument and generate a multi-measure rest or `\skip` exactly as long as the piece.

>     MyCadenza = \relative c' {
>       c4 d8 e f g g4
>       f2 g4 g
>     }

>     \new GrandStaff <<
>       \new Staff {
>         \MyCadenza c'1
>         \MyCadenza c'1
>       }
>       \new Staff {
>         #(ly:export (mmrest-of-length MyCadenza))
>         c'1
>         #(ly:export (skip-of-length MyCadenza))
>         c'1
>       }
>     >>

#### See also

Music Glossary: cadenza.

Snippets: Rhythms.

#### Time administration

Time is administered by the `Timing_translator`, which by default is to be found in the `Score` context. An alias, `Timing`, is added to the context in which the `Timing_translator` is placed.

The following properties of `Timing` are used to keep track of timing within the score.

`currentBarNumber`

  The current measure number. For an example showing the use of this property see Bar numbers.

`measureLength`

  The length of the measures in the current time signature. For a 4/4 time this is 1, and for 6/8 it is 3/4. Its value determines when bar lines are inserted and how automatic beams should be generated.

`measurePosition`

  The point within the measure where we currently are. This quantity is reset by subtracting `measureLength` whenever `measureLength` is reached or exceeded. When that happens, `currentBarNumber` is incremented.

`timing`

  If set to true, the above variables are updated for every time step. When set to false, the engraver stays in the current measure indefinitely.

Timing can be changed by setting any of these variables explicitly. In the next example, the default 4/4 time signature is printed, but `measureLength` is set to 5/4. At 4/8 through the third measure, the `measurePosition` is advanced by 1/8 to 5/8, shortening that bar by 1/8. The next bar line then falls at 9/8 rather than 5/4.

>     \set Score.measureLength = #(ly:make-moment 5 4)
>     c1 c4
>     c1 c4
>     c4 c4
>     \set Score.measurePosition = #(ly:make-moment 5 8)
>     b4 b4 b8
>     c4 c1

As the example illustrates, `ly:make-moment n m` constructs a duration of n/m of a whole note. For example, `ly:make-moment 1 8` is an eighth note duration and `ly:make-moment 7 16` is the duration of seven sixteenths notes.

#### See also

This manual: Bar numbers, Unmetered music

Snippets: Rhythms.

Internals Reference: Timing_translator, Score

## 1.3 Expressive marks

This section lists various expressive marks that can be created in a score.

### 1.3.1 Attached to notes

This section explains how to create expressive marks that are attached to notes: articulations, ornamentations, and dynamics. Methods to create new dynamic markings are also discussed.

#### Articulations and ornamentations

A variety of symbols that denote articulations, ornamentations, and other performance indications can be attached to a note using this syntax:

>     note\name

The possible values for name are listed in List of articulations. For example:

>     c4\staccato c\mordent b2\turn
>     c1\fermata

Some of these articulations have shorthands for easier entry. Shorthands are appended to the note name, and their syntax consists of a dash `-` followed by a symbol signifying the articulation. Predefined shorthands exist for marcato, stopped, tenuto, staccatissimo, accent, staccato, and portato. Their corresponding output appears as follows:

>     c4-^  c-+  c--  c-|
>     c4->  c-.  c2-_

The rules for the default placement of articulations are defined in ‘`scm/script.scm`’. Articulations and ornamentations may be manually placed above or below the staff, see Direction and placement.

#### Selected Snippets

Modifying default values for articulation shorthand notation

The shorthands are defined in ‘`ly/script-init.ly`’, where the variables `dashHat`, `dashPlus`, `dashDash`, `dashBar`, `dashLarger`, `dashDot`, and `dashUnderscore` are assigned default values. The default values for the shorthands can be modified. For example, to associate the `-+` (`dashPlus`) shorthand with the trill symbol instead of the default + symbol, assign the value `trill` to the variable `dashPlus`:

>     \relative c'' { c1-+ }
>     dashPlus = "trill"
>     \relative c'' { c1-+ }

Controlling the vertical ordering of scripts

The vertical ordering of scripts is controlled with the `'script-priority` property. The lower this number, the closer it will be put to the note. In this example, the `TextScript` (the sharp symbol) first has the lowest priority, so it is put lowest in the first example. In the second, the prall trill (the `Script`) has the lowest, so it is on the inside. When two objects have the same priority, the order in which they are entered determines which one comes first.

>     \relative c''' {
>       \once \override TextScript #'script-priority = #-100
>       a2^\prall^\markup { \sharp }

>       \once \override Script #'script-priority = #-100
>       a2^\prall^\markup { \sharp }
>     }

Creating a delayed turn

Creating a delayed turn, where the lower note of the turn uses the accidental, requires several overrides. The `outside-staff-priority` property must be set to `#f`, as otherwise this would take precedence over the `avoid-slur property`. The value of `halign` is used to position the turn horizontally.

>     \relative c'' {
>       \once \override TextScript #'avoid-slur = #'inside
>       \once \override TextScript #'outside-staff-priority = ##f
>       c2(^\markup \tiny \override #'(baseline-skip . 1) {
>         \halign #-4
>         \center-column {
>           \sharp
>           \musicglyph #"scripts.turn"
>         }
>       }
>       d4.) c8
>     }

#### See also

Music Glossary: tenuto, accent, staccato, portato.

Notation Reference: Direction and placement, List of articulations, Trills.

Installed Files: ‘`scm/script.scm`’.

Snippets: Expressive marks.

Internals Reference: Script, TextScript.

#### Dynamics

Absolute dynamic marks are specified using a command after a note, such as `c4\ff`. The available dynamic marks are `\ppppp`, `\pppp`, `\ppp`, `\pp`, `\p`, `\mp`, `\mf`, `\f`, `\ff`, `\fff`, `\ffff`, `\fp`, `\sf`, `\sff`, `\sp`, `\spp`, `\sfz`, and `\rfz`. The dynamic marks may be manually placed above or below the staff, see Direction and placement.

>     c2\ppp c\mp
>     c2\rfz c^\mf
>     c2_\spp c^\ff

A crescendo mark is started with `\<` and terminated with `\!`, an absolute dynamic, or an additional crescendo or decrescendo mark. A decrescendo mark is started with `\>` and is also terminated with `\!`, an absolute dynamic, or another crescendo or decrescendo mark. `\cr` and `\decr` may be used instead of `\<` and `\>`. Hairpins are engraved by default using this notation.

>     c2\< c\!
>     d2\< d\f
>     e2\< e\>
>     f2\> f\!
>     e2\> e\mp
>     d2\> d\>
>     c1\!

Spacer rests are needed to engrave multiple marks on one note.

>     c4\< c\! d\> e\!
>     << f1 { s4 s4\< s4\> s4\! } >>

In some situations the `\espressivo` articulation mark may be the appropriate choice to indicate a crescendo and decrescendo on one note:

>     c2 b4 a
>     g1\espressivo

Crescendos and decrescendos can be engraved as textual markings instead of hairpins. Dashed lines are printed to indicate their extent. The built-in commands that enable these text modes are `\crescTextCresc`, `\dimTextDecresc`, `\dimTextDecr`, and `\dimTextDim`. The corresponding `\crescHairpin` and `\dimHairpin` commands will revert to hairpins again:

>     \crescTextCresc
>     c2\< d | e f\!
>     \dimTextDecresc
>     e2\> d | c b\!
>     \crescHairpin
>     c2\< d | e f\!
>     \dimHairpin
>     e2\> d\!

To create new absolute dynamic marks or text that should be aligned with dynamics, see New dynamic marks.

Vertical positioning of dynamics is handled by DynamicLineSpanner.

#### Predefined commands

`\dynamicUp`, `\dynamicDown`, `\dynamicNeutral`, `\crescTextCresc`, `\dimTextDim`, `\dimTextDecr`, `\dimTextDecresc`, `\crescHairpin`, `\dimHairpin`.

#### Selected Snippets

Setting hairpin behavior at bar lines

If the note which ends a hairpin falls on a downbeat, the hairpin stops at the bar line immediately preceding. This behavior can be controlled by overriding the `'to-barline` property.

>     \relative c'' {
>       e4\< e2.
>       e1\!
>       \override Hairpin #'to-barline = ##f
>       e4\< e2.
>       e1\!
>     }

Setting the minimum length of hairpins

If hairpins are too short, they can be lengthened by modifying the `minimum-length` property of the `Hairpin` object.

>     \relative c'' {
>       c4\< c\! d\> e\!
>       \override Hairpin #'minimum-length = #5
>       << f1 { s4 s\< s\> s\! } >>
>     }

Printing hairpins using al niente notation

Hairpins may be printed with a circled tip (al niente notation) by setting the `circled-tip` property of the `Hairpin` object to `#t`.

>     \relative c'' {
>       \override Hairpin #'circled-tip = ##t
>       c2\< c\!
>       c4\> c\< c2\!
>     }

Vertically aligned dynamics and textscripts

By setting the `'Y-extent` property to a suitable value, all `DynamicLineSpanner` objects (hairpins and dynamic texts) can be aligned to a common reference point, regardless of their actual extent. This way, every element will be vertically aligned, thus producing a more pleasing output.

The same idea is used to align the text scripts along their baseline.

>     music = \relative c'' {
>       c2\p^\markup { gorgeous } c\f^\markup { fantastic }
>       c4\p c\f\> c c\!\p
>     }

>     {
>       \music \break
>       \override DynamicLineSpanner #'staff-padding = #2.0
>       \override DynamicLineSpanner #'Y-extent = #'(-1.5 . 1.5)
>       \override TextScript #'Y-extent = #'(-1.5 . 1.5)
>       \music
>     }

Hiding the extender line for text dynamics

Text style dynamic changes (such as cresc. and dim.) are printed with a dashed line showing their extent. This line can be suppressed in the following way:

>     \relative c'' {
>       \override DynamicTextSpanner #'dash-period = #-1.0
>       \crescTextCresc
>       c1\< | d | b | c\!
>     }

Changing text and spanner styles for text dynamics

The text used for crescendos and decrescendos can be changed by modifying the context properties `crescendoText` and `decrescendoText`. The style of the spanner line can be changed by modifying the `'style` property of `DynamicTextSpanner`. The default value is `'hairpin`, and other possible values include `'line`, `'dashed-line` and `'dotted-line`.

>     \relative c'' {
>       \set crescendoText = \markup { \italic { cresc. poco } }
>       \set crescendoSpanner = #'text
>       \override DynamicTextSpanner #'style = #'dotted-line
>       a2\< a
>       a2 a
>       a2 a
>       a2 a\mf
>     }

#### See also

Music Glossary: al niente, crescendo, decrescendo, hairpin.

Learning Manual: Articulation and dynamics.

Notation Reference: Direction and placement, New dynamic marks, What goes into the MIDI output?, Controlling MIDI dynamics.

Snippets: Expressive marks.

Internals Reference: DynamicText, Hairpin, DynamicLineSpanner.

#### New dynamic marks

The easiest way to create dynamic indications is to use `\markup` objects.

>     moltoF = \markup { molto \dynamic f }

>     \relative c' {
>       <d e>16_\moltoF <d e>
>       <d e>2..
>     }

In markup mode, editorial dynamics (within parentheses or square brackets) can be created. The syntax for markup mode is described in Formatting text.

>     roundF = \markup { \center-align \concat { \bold { \italic ( }
>                \dynamic f \bold { \italic ) } } }
>     boxF = \markup { \bracket { \dynamic f } }
>     \relative c' {
>       c1_\roundF
>       c1_\boxF
>     }

Simple, centered dynamic marks are easily created with the `make-dynamic-script` function. The dynamic font only contains the characters `f,m,p,r,s` and `z`.

>     sfzp = #(make-dynamic-script "sfzp")
>     \relative c' {
>       c4 c c\sfzp c
>     }

In general, `make-dynamic-script` takes any markup object as its argument. In the following example, using `make-dynamic-script` ensures the vertical alignment of markup objects and hairpins that are attached to the same note head.

>     roundF = \markup { \center-align \concat {
>                \normal-text { \bold { \italic ( } }
>                \dynamic f
>                \normal-text { \bold { \italic ) } } } }
>     boxF = \markup { \bracket { \dynamic f } }
>     roundFdynamic = #(make-dynamic-script roundF)
>     boxFdynamic = #(make-dynamic-script boxF)
>     \relative c' {
>       c4_\roundFdynamic\< d e f
>       g,1_\boxFdynamic
>     }

The Scheme form of markup mode may be used instead. Its syntax is explained in Markup construction in Scheme.

>     moltoF = #(make-dynamic-script
>                 (markup #:normal-text "molto"
>                         #:dynamic "f"))
>     \relative c' {
>       <d e>16 <d e>
>       <d e>2..\moltoF
>     }

Font settings in markup mode are described in Selecting font and font size.

#### See also

Notation Reference: Formatting text, Selecting font and font size, Markup construction in Scheme, What goes into the MIDI output?, Controlling MIDI dynamics.

Snippets: Expressive marks.

### 1.3.2 Curves

This section explains how to create various expressive marks that are curved: normal slurs, phrasing slurs, breath marks, falls, and doits.

#### Slurs

Slurs are entered using parentheses:

>     f4( g a) a8 b(
>     a4 g2 f4)
>     <c e>2( <b d>2)

Slurs may be manually placed above or below the notes, see Direction and placement.

>     c2( d)
>     \slurDown
>     c2( d)
>     \slurNeutral
>     c2( d)

Simultaneous or overlapping slurs are not permitted, but a phrasing slur can overlap a slur. This permits two slurs to be printed at once. For details, see Phrasing slurs.

Slurs can be solid, dotted, or dashed. Solid is the default slur style:

>     c4( e g2)
>     \slurDashed
>     g4( e c2)
>     \slurDotted
>     c4( e g2)
>     \slurSolid
>     g4( e c2)

#### Predefined commands

`\slurUp`, `\slurDown`, `\slurNeutral`, `\slurDashed`, `\slurDotted`, `\slurSolid`.

#### Selected Snippets

Using double slurs for legato chords

Some composers write two slurs when they want legato chords. This can be achieved by setting `doubleSlurs`.

>     \relative c' {
>       \set doubleSlurs = ##t
>       <c e>4( <d f> <c e> <d f>)
>     }

Positioning text markups inside slurs

Text markups need to have the `outside-staff-priority` property set to false in order to be printed inside slurs.

>     \relative c'' {
>       \override TextScript #'avoid-slur = #'inside
>       \override TextScript #'outside-staff-priority = ##f
>       c2(^\markup { \halign #-10 \natural } d4.) c8
>     }

#### See also

Music Glossary: slur.

Learning Manual: On the un-nestedness of brackets and ties.

Notation Reference: Direction and placement, Phrasing slurs.

Snippets: Expressive marks.

Internals Reference: Slur.

#### Phrasing slurs

Phrasing slurs (or phrasing marks) that indicate a musical sentence are written using the commands `\(` and `\)` respectively:

>     c4\( d( e) f(
>     e2) d\)

Typographically, a phrasing slur behaves almost exactly like a normal slur. However, they are treated as different objects; a `\slurUp` will have no effect on a phrasing slur. Phrasing slurs may be manually placed above or below the notes, see Direction and placement.

>     c4\( g' c,( b) | c1\)
>     \phrasingSlurUp
>     c4\( g' c,( b) | c1\)

Simultaneous or overlapping phrasing slurs are not permitted.

Phrasing slurs can be solid, dotted, or dashed. Solid is the default style for phrasing slurs:

>     c4\( e g2\)
>     \phrasingSlurDashed
>     g4\( e c2\)
>     \phrasingSlurDotted
>     c4\( e g2\)
>     \phrasingSlurSolid
>     g4\( e c2\)

#### Predefined commands

`\phrasingSlurUp`, `\phrasingSlurDown`, `\phrasingSlurNeutral`, `\phrasingSlurDashed`, `\phrasingSlurDotted`, `\phrasingSlurSolid`.

#### See also

Learning Manual: On the un-nestedness of brackets and ties.

Notation Reference: Direction and placement.

Snippets: Expressive marks.

Internals Reference: PhrasingSlur.

#### Breath marks

Breath marks are entered using `\breathe`:

>     c2. \breathe d4

Musical indicators for breath marks in ancient notation, divisiones, are supported. For details, see Divisiones.

#### Selected Snippets

Changing the breath mark symbol

The glyph of the breath mark can be tuned by overriding the text property of the `BreathingSign` layout object with any markup text.

>     \relative c'' {
>       c2
>       \override BreathingSign #'text = \markup { \musicglyph #"scripts.rvarcomma" }
>       \breathe
>       d2
>     }

Inserting a caesura

Caesura marks can be created by overriding the `'text` property of the `BreathingSign` object. A curved caesura mark is also available.

>     \relative c'' {
>       \override BreathingSign #'text = \markup {
>         \musicglyph #"scripts.caesura.straight"
>       }
>       c8 e4. \breathe g8. e16 c4

>       \override BreathingSign #'text = \markup {
>         \musicglyph #"scripts.caesura.curved"
>       }
>       g8 e'4. \breathe g8. e16 c4
>     }

#### See also

Music Glossary: caesura.

Notation Reference: Divisiones.

Snippets: Expressive marks.

Internals Reference: BreathingSign.

#### Falls and doits

Falls and doits can be added to notes using the `\bendAfter` command. The direction of the fall or doit is indicated with a plus or minus (up or down). The number indicates the pitch interval that the fall or doit will extend beyond the main note.

>     c2-\bendAfter #+4
>     c2-\bendAfter #-4
>     c2-\bendAfter #+8
>     c2-\bendAfter #-8

The dash `-` immediately preceding the `\bendAfter` command is required when writing falls and doits.

#### Selected Snippets

Adjusting the shape of falls and doits

The `shortest-duration-space` property may have to be tweaked to adjust the shape of falls and doits.

>     \relative c'' {
>       \override Score.SpacingSpanner #'shortest-duration-space = #4.0
>       c2-\bendAfter #+5
>       c2-\bendAfter #-3
>       c2-\bendAfter #+8
>       c2-\bendAfter #-6
>     }

#### See also

Music Glossary: fall, doit.

Snippets: Expressive marks.

### 1.3.3 Lines

This section explains how to create various expressive marks that follow a linear path: glissandos, arpeggios, and trills.

#### Glissando

A glissando is created by attaching `\glissando` to a note:

>     g2\glissando g'
>     c2\glissando c,

Different styles of glissandi can be created. For details, see Line styles.

#### Selected Snippets

Contemporary glissando

A contemporary glissando without a final note can be typeset using a hidden note and cadenza timing.

>     \relative c'' {
>       \time 3/4
>       \override Glissando #'style = #'zigzag
>       c4 c
>       \cadenzaOn
>       c4\glissando
>       \hideNotes
>       c,,4
>       \unHideNotes
>       \cadenzaOff
>       \bar "|"
>     }

#### See also

Music Glossary: glissando.

Notation Reference: Line styles.

Snippets: Expressive marks.

Internals Reference: Glissando.

#### Known issues and warnings

Printing text over the line (such as gliss.) is not supported.

#### Arpeggio

An arpeggio on a chord (also known as a broken chord) is denoted by appending `\arpeggio` to the chord construct:

>     <c e g c>1\arpeggio

Different types of arpeggios may be written. `\arpeggioNormal` reverts to a normal arpeggio:

>     <c e g c>2\arpeggio
>     \arpeggioArrowUp
>     <c e g c>2\arpeggio
>     \arpeggioArrowDown
>     <c e g c>2\arpeggio
>     \arpeggioNormal
>     <c e g c>2\arpeggio

Special bracketed arpeggio symbols can be created:

>     <c e g c>2
>     \arpeggioBracket
>     <c e g c>2\arpeggio
>     \arpeggioParenthesis
>     <c e g c>2\arpeggio
>     \arpeggioNormal
>     <c e g c>2\arpeggio

Arpeggios can be explicitly written out with ties. For more information, see Ties.

#### Predefined commands

`\arpeggio`, `\arpeggioArrowUp`, `\arpeggioArrowDown`, `\arpeggioNormal`, `\arpeggioBracket`, `\arpeggioParenthesis`.

#### Selected Snippets

Creating cross-staff arpeggios in a piano staff

In a `PianoStaff`, it is possible to let an arpeggio cross between the staves by setting the property `PianoStaff.connectArpeggios`.

>     \new PianoStaff \relative c'' <<
>       \set PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
>       \new Staff {
>         <c e g c>4\arpeggio
>         <g c e g>4\arpeggio
>         <e g c e>4\arpeggio
>         <c e g c>4\arpeggio
>       }
>       \new Staff {
>         \clef bass
>         \repeat unfold 4 {
>           <c,, e g c>4\arpeggio
>         }
>       }
>     >>

Creating cross-staff arpeggios in other contexts

Cross-staff arpeggios can be created in contexts other than `PianoStaff` if the `Span_arpeggio_engraver` is included in the `Score` context.

>     \score {
>       \new StaffGroup {
>         \set Score.connectArpeggios = ##t
>         <<
>           \new Voice \relative c' {
>             <c e>2\arpeggio
>             <d f>2\arpeggio
>             <c e>1\arpeggio
>           }
>           \new Voice  \relative c {
>             \clef bass
>              <c g'>2\arpeggio
>              <b g'>2\arpeggio
>              <c g'>1\arpeggio
>           }
>         >>
>       }
>       \layout {
>         \context {
>           \Score
>           \consists "Span_arpeggio_engraver"
>         }
>       }
>     }

Creating arpeggios across notes in different voices

An arpeggio can be drawn across notes in different voices on the same staff if the `Span_arpeggio_engraver` is moved to the `Staff` context:

>     \new Staff \with {
>       \consists "Span_arpeggio_engraver"
>     }
>     \relative c' {
>       \set Staff.connectArpeggios = ##t
>       <<
>         { <e' g>4\arpeggio <d f> <d f>2 } \\
>         { <d, f>2\arpeggio <g b>2 }
>       >>
>     }

#### See also

Music Glossary: arpeggio.

Notation Reference: Ties.

Snippets: Expressive marks.

Internals Reference: Arpeggio, PianoStaff.

#### Known issues and warnings

It is not possible to mix connected arpeggios and unconnected arpeggios in one `PianoStaff` at the same point in time.

The parenthesis-style arpeggio brackets do not work for cross-staff arpeggios.

#### Trills

Short trills without an extender line are printed with `\trill`; see Articulations and ornamentations.

Longer trills with an extender line are made with `\startTrillSpan` and `\stopTrillSpan`:

>     d1~\startTrillSpan
>     d1
>     c2\stopTrillSpan r2

In the following example, a trill is combined with grace notes. The syntax of this construct and the method to precisely position the grace notes are described in Grace notes.

>     c1 \afterGrace
>     d1\startTrillSpan { c32[ d]\stopTrillSpan }
>     e2 r2

Trills that require an auxiliary note with an explicit pitch can be typeset with the `\pitchedTrill` command. The first argument is the main note, and the second is the trilled note, printed as a stemless note head in parentheses.

>     \pitchedTrill e2\startTrillSpan fis
>     d\stopTrillSpan

In the following example, the second pitched trill is ambiguous; the accidental of the trilled note is not printed. As a workaround, the accidentals of the trilled notes can be forced. The second measure illustrates this method:

>     \pitchedTrill eis4\startTrillSpan fis
>     g\stopTrillSpan
>     \pitchedTrill eis4\startTrillSpan fis
>     g\stopTrillSpan
>     \pitchedTrill eis4\startTrillSpan fis
>     g\stopTrillSpan
>     \pitchedTrill eis4\startTrillSpan fis!
>     g\stopTrillSpan

#### Predefined commands

`\startTrillSpan`, `\stopTrillSpan`.

#### See also

Music Glossary: trill.

Notation Reference: Articulations and ornamentations, Grace notes.

Snippets: Expressive marks.

Internals Reference: TrillSpanner.

## 1.4 Repeats

Repetition is a central concept in music, and multiple notations exist for repetitions. LilyPond supports the following kinds of repeats:

`volta`

  The repeated music is not written out but enclosed between repeat bar lines. If the repeat is at the beginning of a piece, a repeat bar line is only printed at the end of the repeat. Alternative endings (volte) are printed left to right with brackets. This is the standard notation for repeats with alternatives.

`unfold`

  The repeated music is fully written out, as many times as specified by repeatcount. This is useful when entering repetitious music.

`percent`

  These are beat or measure repeats. They look like single slashes or percent signs.

`tremolo`

  This is used to write tremolo beams.

### 1.4.1 Long repeats

This section discusses how to input long (usually multi-measure) repeats. The repeats can take two forms: repeats enclosed between repeat signs; or written out repeats, used to input repetitious music. Repeat signs can also be controlled manually.

#### Normal repeats

The syntax for a normal repeat is

>     \repeat volta repeatcount musicexpr

where musicexpr is a music expression. Alternate endings can be produced using `\alternative`. In order to delimit the alternate endings, the group of alternatives must be enclosed in a set of braces. If there are more repeats than there are alternate endings, the earliest repeats are given the first alternative.

Normal repeats without alternate endings:

>     \repeat volta 2 { c4 d e f }
>     c2 d
>     \repeat volta 2 { d4 e f g }

Normal repeats with alternate endings:

>     \repeat volta 4 { c4 d e f }
>     \alternative {
>       { d2 e }
>       { f2 g }
>     }
>     c1

Repeats with upbeats can be entered in two ways:

>     \partial 4
>     e |
>     \repeat volta 4 { c2 d | e2 f | }
>     \alternative {
>       { g4 g g e }
>       { a4 a a a | b2. }
>     }

or

>     \partial 4
>     \repeat volta 4 { e4 | c2 d | e2 f | }
>     \alternative {
>       { \partial 4*3 g4 g g }
>       { a4 a a a | b2. }
>     }

Ties may be added to a second ending:

>     c1
>     \repeat volta 2 { c4 d e f ~ }
>     \alternative {
>       { f2 d }
>       { f2\repeatTie f, }
>     }

#### Selected Snippets

Shortening volta brackets

By default, the volta brackets will be drawn over all of the alternative music, but it is possible to shorten them by setting `voltaSpannerDuration`. In the next example, the bracket only lasts one measure, which is a duration of 3/4.

>     \relative c'' {
>       \time 3/4
>       c4 c c
>       \set Score.voltaSpannerDuration = #(ly:make-moment 3 4)
>       \repeat volta 5 { d4 d d }
>       \alternative {
>         {
>           e4 e e
>           f4 f f
>         }
>         { g4 g g }
>       }
>     }

Adding volta brackets to additional staves

The `Volta_engraver` by default resides in the `Score` context, and brackets for the repeat are thus normally only printed over the topmost staff. This can be adjusted by adding the `Volta_engraver` to the `Staff` context where the brackets should appear; see also the "Volta multi staff" snippet.

>     <<
>       \new Staff { \repeat volta 2 { c'1 } \alternative { c' } }
>       \new Staff { \repeat volta 2 { c'1 } \alternative { c' } }
>       \new Staff \with { \consists "Volta_engraver" } { c'2 g' e' a' }
>       \new Staff { \repeat volta 2 { c'1 } \alternative { c' } }
>     >>

#### See also

Music Glossary: repeat, volta.

Notation Reference: Bar lines, Modifying context plug-ins.

Snippets: Repeats.

Internals Reference: VoltaBracket, RepeatedMusic, VoltaRepeatedMusic, UnfoldedRepeatedMusic.

#### Known issues and warnings

A nested repeat like

>     \repeat …
>     \repeat …
>     \alternative

is ambiguous, since it is is not clear to which `\repeat` the `\alternative` belongs. This ambiguity is resolved by always having the `\alternative` belong to the inner `\repeat`. For clarity, it is advisable to use braces in such situations.

Timing information is not remembered at the start of an alternative, so after a repeat timing information must be reset by hand; for example, by setting `Score.measurePosition` or entering `\partial`. Similarly, slurs are also not repeated.

#### Manual repeat marks

Note: These methods are only used for displaying unusual repeat constructs, and may produce unexpected behavior. In most cases, repeats should be created using the standard `\repeat` command or by printing the relevant bar lines. For more information, see Bar lines.

The property `repeatCommands` can be used to control the layout of repeats. Its value is a Scheme list of repeat commands.

`start-repeat`

  Print a `|:` bar line.

  >     c1
  >     \set Score.repeatCommands = #'(start-repeat)
  >     d4 e f g
  >     c1

  As per standard engraving practice, repeat signs are not printed at the beginning of a piece.

`end-repeat`

  Print a `:|` bar line:

  >     c1
  >     d4 e f g
  >     \set Score.repeatCommands = #'(end-repeat)
  >     c1

`(volta number) ... (volta #f)`

  Create a new volta with the specified number. The volta bracket must be explicitly terminated, or it will not be printed.

  >     f4 g a b
  >     \set Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "2"))
  >     g4 a g a
  >     \set Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
  >     c1

Multiple repeat commands may occur at the same point:

>     f4 g a b
>     \set Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta "2, 5") end-repeat)
>     g4 a g a
>     c1
>     \set Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f) (volta "95") end-repeat)
>     b1
>     \set Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))

Text can be included with the volta bracket. The text can be a number or numbers or markup text, see Formatting text. The simplest way to use markup text is to define the markup first, then include the markup in a Scheme list.

>     voltaAdLib = \markup { 1. 2. 3... \text \italic { ad lib. } }
>     \relative c'' {
>       c1
>       \set Score.repeatCommands = #(list(list 'volta voltaAdLib) 'start-repeat)
>       c4 b d e
>       \set Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f) (volta "4.") end-repeat)
>       f1
>       \set Score.repeatCommands = #'((volta #f))
>     }

#### Selected Snippets

Printing a repeat sign at the beginning of a piece

A `|:` bar line can be printed at the beginning of a piece, by overriding the relevant property:

>     \relative c'' {
>       \once \override Score.BreakAlignment #'break-align-orders =
>             #(make-vector 3 '(instrument-name
>                               left-edge
>                               ambitus
>                               span-bar
>                               breathing-sign
>                               clef
>                               key-signature
>                               time-signature
>                               staff-bar
>                               custos
>                               span-bar))
>       \bar "|:"
>       c1
>       d1
>       d4 e f g
>     }

#### See also

Notation Reference: Bar lines, Formatting text.

Snippets: Repeats.

Internals Reference: VoltaBracket, RepeatedMusic, VoltaRepeatedMusic.

#### Written-out repeats

By using the `unfold` command, repeats can be used to simplify the writing out of repetitious music. The syntax is

>     \repeat unfold repeatcount musicexpr

where musicexpr is a music expression and repeatcount is the number of times musicexpr is repeated.

>     c1
>     \repeat unfold 2 { c4 d e f }
>     c1

Unfold repeats can be made with alternate endings. If there are more repeats than there are alternate endings, the first alternative ending is applied to the earliest endings.

>     c1
>     \repeat unfold 2 { g4 f e d }
>       \alternative {
>         { cis2 g' }
>         { cis,2 b }
>       }
>     c1

#### See also

Snippets: Repeats.

Internals Reference: RepeatedMusic, UnfoldedRepeatedMusic.

### 1.4.2 Short repeats

This section discusses how to input short repeats. Short repeats can take two basic forms: repeats of a single note to two measures, represented by slashes or percent signs; and tremolos.

#### Percent repeats

Repeated short patterns of notes are supported. The music is printed once, and the pattern is replaced with a special sign. Patterns that are shorter than one measure are replaced by slashes, and patterns of one or two measures are replaced by percent-like signs. The syntax is

>     \repeat percent number musicexpr

where musicexpr is a music expression.

>     \repeat percent 4 { c4 }
>     \repeat percent 2 { b4 a g f }
>     \repeat percent 2 { c2 es | f4 fis g c | }

#### Selected Snippets

Percent repeat counter

Measure repeats of more than two repeats can get a counter when the convenient property is switched, as shown in this example:

>     \relative c'' {
>       \set countPercentRepeats = ##t
>       \repeat percent 4 { c1 }
>     }

Percent repeat count visibility

Percent repeat counters can be shown at regular intervals by setting the context property `repeatCountVisibility`.

>     \relative c'' {
>       \set countPercentRepeats = ##t
>       \set repeatCountVisibility = #(every-nth-repeat-count-visible 5)
>       \repeat percent 10 { c1 } \break
>       \set repeatCountVisibility = #(every-nth-repeat-count-visible 2)
>       \repeat percent 6 { c1 d1 }
>     }

Isolated percent repeats

Isolated percents can also be printed. This is done by entering a multi-measure rest with a different print function:

>     \relative c'' {
>       \override MultiMeasureRest #'stencil
>         = #ly:multi-measure-rest::percent
>       \override MultiMeasureRest #'thickness = #0.48
>       R1
>     }

#### See also

Music Glossary: percent repeat, simile.

Snippets: Repeats.

Internals Reference: RepeatSlash, PercentRepeat, DoublePercentRepeat, DoublePercentRepeatCounter, PercentRepeatCounter, PercentRepeatedMusic.

#### Known issues and warnings

Only three kinds of percent repeats are supported: a single slash representing a single beat (regardless of the duration of the repeated notes); a single slash with dots representing one full measure; and two slashes with dots crossing a bar line representing two full measures. Neither multiple slashes representing single beat repeats consisting of sixteenth or shorter notes, nor two slashes with dots representing single beat repeats consisting of notes of varying durations, are supported.

#### Tremolo repeats

Tremolos can take two forms: alternation between two chords or two notes, and rapid repetition of a single note or chord. Tremolos consisting of an alternation are indicated by adding beams between the notes or chords being alternated, while tremolos consisting of the rapid repetition of a single note are indicated by adding beams or slashes to a single note.

To place tremolo marks between notes, use `\repeat` with tremolo style:

>     \repeat tremolo 8 { c16 d }
>     \repeat tremolo 6 { c16 d }
>     \repeat tremolo 2 { c16 d }

The `\repeat tremolo` syntax expects exactly two notes within the braces, and the number of repetitions must correspond to a note value that can be expressed with plain or dotted notes. Thus, `\repeat tremolo 7` is valid and produces a double dotted note, but `\repeat tremolo 9` is not.

The duration of the tremolo equals the duration of the braced expression multiplied by the number of repeats: `\repeat tremolo 8 { c16 d16 }` gives a whole note tremolo, notated as two whole notes joined by tremolo beams.

There are two ways to put tremolo marks on a single note. The `\repeat tremolo` syntax is also used here, in which case the note should not be surrounded by braces:

>     \repeat tremolo 4 c'16

The same output can be obtained by adding ‘`:`[number]’ after the note. The number indicates the duration of the subdivision, and it must be at least 8. A number value of 8 gives one line across the note stem. If the length is omitted, the last value (stored in `tremoloFlags`) is used

>     c2:8 c:32
>     c: c:

#### See also

Snippets: Repeats.

#### Known issues and warnings

Cross-staff tremolos do not work well.

## 1.5 Simultaneous notes

Polyphony in music refers to having more than one voice occurring in a piece of music. Polyphony in LilyPond refers to having more than one voice on the same staff.

### 1.5.1 Single voice

This section discusses simultaneous notes inside the same voice.

#### Chorded notes

A chord is formed by enclosing a set of pitches between `<` and `>`. A chord may be followed by a duration and/or a set of articulations, just like simple notes:

>     <c e g>2 <c f a>4-> <e g c>-.

Relative mode can be used for pitches in chords. The octave of each pitch is chosen using the preceding pitch as a reference except in the case of the first pitch in a chord: the reference for the first pitch is the first pitch of the preceding chord.

For more information about chords, see Chord notation.

#### See also

Music Glossary: chord.

Learning Manual: Combining notes into chords.

Notation Reference: Chord notation.

Snippets: Simultaneous notes.

#### Simultaneous expressions

One or more music expressions enclosed in double angle brackets are taken to be simultaneous. If the first expression begins with a single note or if the whole simultaneous expression appears explicitly within a single voice, the whole expression is placed on a single staff; otherwise the elements of the simultaneous expression are placed on separate staves.

The following examples show simultaneous expressions on one staff:

>     \new Voice {  % explicit single voice
>       << {a4 b g2} {d4 g c,2} >>
>     }

>     % single first note
>     a << {a4 b g}  {d4 g c,} >>

This can be useful if the simultaneous sections have identical rhythms, but attempts to attach notes with different durations to the same stem will cause errors.

The following example shows how simultaneous expressions can generate multiple staves implicitly:

>     % no single first note
>     << {a4 b g2}  {d4 g2 c,4} >>

Here different rhythms cause no problems.

#### Clusters

A cluster indicates a continuous range of pitches to be played. They can be denoted as the envelope of a set of notes. They are entered by applying the function `\makeClusters` to a sequence of chords, e.g.,

>     \makeClusters { <g b>2 <c g'> }

Ordinary notes and clusters can be put together in the same staff, even simultaneously. In such a case no attempt is made to automatically avoid collisions between ordinary notes and clusters.

#### See also

Music Glossary: cluster.

Snippets: Simultaneous notes.

Internals Reference: ClusterSpanner, ClusterSpannerBeacon, Cluster_spanner_engraver.

#### Known issues and warnings

Clusters look good only if they span at least two chords; otherwise they appear too narrow.

Clusters do not have a stem and cannot indicate durations by themselves, but the length of the printed cluster is determined by the durations of the defining chords. Separate clusters need a separating rest between them.

Clusters do not produce MIDI output.

### 1.5.2 Multiple voices

This section discusses simultaneous notes in multiple voices or multiple staves.

#### Single-staff polyphony

Explicitly instantiating voices

The basic structure needed to achieve multiple independent voices in a single staff is illustrated in the following example:

>     \new Staff <<
>       \new Voice = "first"
>         { \voiceOne r8 r16 g e8. f16 g8[ c,] f e16 d }
>       \new Voice= "second"
>         { \voiceTwo d16 c d8~ d16 b c8~ c16 b c8~ c16 b8. }
>     >>

Here, voices are instantiated explicitly and are given names. The `\voiceOne` ... `\voiceFour` commands set up the voices so that first and third voices get stems up, second and fourth voices get stems down, third and fourth voice note heads are horizontally shifted, and rests in the respective voices are automatically moved to avoid collisions. The `\oneVoice` command returns all the voice settings to the neutral default directions.

Temporary polyphonic passages

A temporary polyphonic passage can be created with the following construct:

>     << { \voiceOne ... }
>       \new Voice { \voiceTwo ... }
>     >> \oneVoice

Here, the first expression within a temporary polyphonic passage is placed into the `Voice` context which was in use immediately before the polyphonic passage, and that same `Voice` context continues after the temporary section. Other expressions within the angle brackets are assigned to distinct temporary voices. This allows lyrics to be assigned to one continuing voice before, during and after a polyphonic section:

>     <<
>       \new Voice = "melody" {
>         a4
>         <<
>           {
>             \voiceOne
>             g f
>           }
>           \new Voice {
>             \voiceTwo
>             d2
>           }
>         >>
>         \oneVoice
>         e4
>       }
>       \new Lyrics \lyricsto "melody" {
>       This is my song.
>       }
>     >>

Here, the `\voiceOne` and `\voiceTwo` commands are required to define the settings of each voice.

The double backslash construct

The `<< {...} \\ {...} >>` construct, where the two (or more) expressions are separated by double backslashes, behaves differently to the similar construct without the double backslashes: all the expressions within this contruct are assigned to new `Voice` contexts. These new `Voice` contexts are created implicitly and are given the fixed names `"1"`, `"2"`, etc.

The first example could be typeset as follows:

>     <<
>       { r8 r16 g e8. f16 g8[ c,] f e16 d }
>       \\
>       { d16 c d8~ d16 b c8~ c16 b c8~ c16 b8. }
>     >>

This syntax can be used where it does not matter that temporary voices are created and then discarded. These implicitly created voices are given the settings equivalent to the effect of the `\voiceOne` ... `\voiceFour` commands, in the order in which they appear in the code.

In the following example, the intermediate voice has stems up, therefore we enter it in the third place, so it becomes voice three, which has the stems up as desired. Spacer rests are used to avoid printing doubled rests.

>     <<
>       { r8 g g  g g f16 ees f8 d }
>       \\
>       { ees,8 r ees r d r d r }
>       \\
>       { d'8 s c s bes s a s }
>     >>

In all but the simplest works it is advisable to create explicit `Voice` contexts as explained in Contexts and engravers and Explicitly instantiating voices.

Identical rhythms

In the special case that we want to typeset parallel pieces of music that have the same rhythm, we can combine them into a single `Voice` context, thus forming chords. To achieve this, enclose them in a simple simultaneous music construct within an explicit voice:

>     \new Voice <<
>       { e4 f8 d e16 f g8 d4 }
>       { c4 d8 b c16 d e8 b4 }
>     >>

This method leads to strange beamings and warnings if the pieces of music do not have the same rhythm.

#### Predefined commands

`\voiceOne`, `\voiceTwo`, `\voiceThree`, `\voiceFour`, `\oneVoice`.

#### See also

Learning Manual: Voices contain music, Explicitly instantiating voices.

Notation Reference: Percussion staves, Invisible rests, Stems.

Snippets: Simultaneous notes.

#### Voice styles

Voices may be given distinct colors and shapes, allowing them to be easily identified:

>     <<
>       { \voiceOneStyle d4 c2 b4 }
>       \\
>       { \voiceTwoStyle e,2 e }
>       \\
>       { \voiceThreeStyle b2. c4 }
>       \\
>       { \voiceFourStyle g'2 g }
>     >>

The `\voiceNeutralstyle` command is used to revert to the standard presentation.

#### Predefined commands

`\voiceOneStyle`, `\voiceTwoStyle`, `\voiceThreeStyle`, `\voiceFourStyle`, `\voiceNeutralStyle`.

#### See also

Learning Manual: I'm hearing Voices, Other sources of information.

Snippets: Simultaneous notes.

#### Collision resolution

The note heads of notes in different voices with the same pitch, same note head and opposite stem direction are automatically merged, but notes with different note heads or the same stem direction are not. Rests opposite a stem in a different voice are shifted vertically.

>     <<
>       {
>         c8 d e d c d c4
>         g'2 fis
>       } \\ {
>         c2 c8. b16 c4
>         e,2 r
>       } \\ {
>         \oneVoice
>         s1
>         e8 a b c d2
>       }
>     >>

Notes with different note heads may be merged, with the exception of half-note heads and quarter-note heads:

>     <<
>       {
>         \mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn
>         c8 d e d c d c4
>         g'2 fis
>       } \\ {
>         c2 c8. b16 c4
>         e,2 r
>       } \\ {
>         \oneVoice
>         s1
>         e8 a b c d2
>       }
>     >>

Note heads with different dots may be merged:

>     <<
>       {
>         \mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn
>         \mergeDifferentlyDottedOn
>         c8 d e d c d c4
>         g'2 fis
>       } \\ {
>         c2 c8. b16 c4
>         e,2 r
>       } \\ {
>         \oneVoice
>         s1
>         e8 a b c d2
>       }
>     >>

The half note and eighth note at the start of the second measure are incorrectly merged because `\mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn` cannot successfully complete the merge when three or more notes line up in the same column, and in this case a warning is given. To allow the merge to work properly a `\shift` must be applied to the note that should not be merged. Here, `\shiftOn` is applied to move the top g out of the column, and `\mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn` then works properly.

>     <<
>       {
>         \mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn
>         \mergeDifferentlyDottedOn
>         c8 d e d c d c4
>         \shiftOn
>         g'2 fis
>       } \\ {
>         c2 c8. b16 c4
>         e,2 r
>       } \\ {
>         \oneVoice
>         s1
>         e8 a b c d2
>       }

>     >>

The `\shiftOn`, `\shiftOnn`, and `\shiftOnnn` commands specify the degree to which chords of the current voice should be shifted. The outer voices (normally: voices one and two) have `\shiftOff`, while the inner voices (three and four) have `\shiftOn`. `\shiftOnn` and `\shiftOnnn` define further shift levels.

Notes are only merged if they have opposing stem directions (e.g. in `Voice` 1 and 2).

#### Predefined commands

`\mergeDifferentlyDottedOn`, `\mergeDifferentlyDottedOff`, `\mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn`, `\mergeDifferentlyHeadedOff`.

`\shiftOn`, `\shiftOnn`, `\shiftOnnn`, `\shiftOff`.

#### Selected Snippets

Additional voices to avoid collisions

In some instances of complex polyphonic music, additional voices are necessary to prevent collisions between notes. If more than four parallel voices are needed, additional voices can be added by defining a variable using the Scheme function `context-spec-music`.

>     voiceFive = #(context-spec-music (make-voice-props-set 4) 'Voice)
>     \relative c'' {
>       \time 3/4 \key d \minor \partial 2
>       <<
>         { \voiceOne
>           a4. a8
>           e'4 e4. e8
>           f4 d4. c8
>         } \\ {
>           \voiceThree
>           f,2
>           bes4 a2
>           a4 s2
>         } \\ {
>           \voiceFive
>           s2
>           g4 g2
>           f4 f2
>         } \\ {
>           \voiceTwo
>           d2
>           d4 cis2
>           d4 bes2
>         }
>       >>
>     }

Forcing horizontal shift of notes

When the typesetting engine cannot cope, the following syntax can be used to override typesetting decisions. The units of measure used here are staff spaces.

>     \relative c' <<
>       {
>         <d g>2 <d g>
>       }
>       \\
>       {
>         <b f'>2
>         \once \override NoteColumn #'force-hshift = #1.7
>         <b f'>2
>       }
>     >>

#### See also

Music Glossary: polyphony.

Learning Manual: Multiple notes at once, Voices contain music, Collisions of objects.

Snippets: Simultaneous notes.

Internals Reference: NoteColumn, NoteCollision, RestCollision.

#### Known issues and warnings

When using `\mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn` with an upstem eighth or a shorter note, and a downstem half note, the eighth note stem gets a slightly wrong offset because of the different width of the half note head symbol.

There is no support for chords where the same note occurs with different accidentals in the same chord. In this case, it is recommended to use enharmonic transcription, or to use special cluster notation (see Clusters).

#### Automatic part combining

Automatic part combining is used to merge two parts of music onto a staff. It is aimed at typesetting orchestral scores. When the two parts are identical for a period of time, only one is shown. In places where the two parts differ, they are typeset as separate voices, and stem directions are set automatically. Also, solo and a due parts are identified and marked by default.

The syntax for part combining is:

>     \partcombine musicexpr1 musicexpr2

The following example demonstrates the basic functionality of the part combiner: putting parts on one staff and setting stem directions and polyphony. The same variables are used for the independent parts and the combined staff.

>     instrumentOne = \relative c' {
>       c4 d e f
>       R1
>       d'4 c b a
>       b4 g2 f4
>       e1
>     }

>     instrumentTwo = \relative g' {
>       R1
>       g4 a b c
>       d c b a
>       g f( e) d
>       e1
>     }

>     <<
>       \new Staff \instrumentOne
>       \new Staff \instrumentTwo
>       \new Staff \partcombine \instrumentOne \instrumentTwo
>     >>

The notes in the third measure appear only once, although they were specified in both parts. Stem, slur, and tie directions are set automatically, depending whether there is a solo or unison. When needed in polyphony situations, the first part (with context called `one`) always gets up stems, while the second (called `two`) always gets down stems. In solo situations, the first and second parts get marked with ‘Solo’ and ‘Solo II’, respectively. The unisono (a due) parts are marked by default with the text “a2”.

Both arguments to `\partcombine` will be interpreted as `Voice` contexts. If using relative octaves, `\relative` should be specified for both music expressions, i.e.,

>     \partcombine
>       \relative … musicexpr1
>       \relative … musicexpr2

A `\relative` section that is outside of `\partcombine` has no effect on the pitches of musicexpr1 and musicexpr2.

#### Selected Snippets

Combining two parts on the same staff

The part combiner tool ( `\partcombine` command ) allows the combination of several different parts on the same staff. Text directions such as "solo" or "a2" are added by default; to remove them, simply set the property `printPartCombineTexts` to "false". For vocal scores (hymns), there is no need to add "solo"/"a2" texts, so they should be switched off. However, it might be better not to use it if there are any solos, as they won’t be indicated. In such cases, standard polyphonic notation may be preferable.

This snippet presents the three ways two parts can be printed on a same staff: standard polyphony, `\partcombine` without texts, and `\partcombine` with texts.

>     musicUp = \relative c'' {
>       \time 4/4
>       a4 c4.( g8) a4 |
>       g4 e' g,( a8 b) |
>       c b a2.
>     }

>     musicDown = \relative c'' {
>       g4 e4.( d8) c4 |
>       r2 g'4( f8 e) |
>       d2 \stemDown a
>     }

>     \score {
>       <<
>         <<
>         \new Staff {
>           \set Staff.instrumentName = "Standard polyphony  "
>           << \musicUp \\ \musicDown >>
>         }
>         \new Staff \with { printPartCombineTexts = ##f } {
>           \set Staff.instrumentName = "PartCombine without texts  "
>           \partcombine \musicUp \musicDown
>         }
>         \new Staff {
>           \set Staff.instrumentName = "PartCombine with texts  "
>           \partcombine \musicUp \musicDown
>         }
>         >>
>       >>
>       \layout {
>         indent = 6.0\cm
>         \context {
>           \Score
>           \override SystemStartBar #'collapse-height = #30
>         }
>       }
>     }

Changing partcombine texts

When using the automatic part combining feature, the printed text for the solo and unison sections may be changed:

>     \new Staff <<
>       \set Staff.soloText = #"girl"
>       \set Staff.soloIIText = #"boy"
>       \set Staff.aDueText = #"together"
>       \partcombine
>         \relative c'' {
>           g4 g r r
>           a2 g
>         }
>         \relative c'' {
>           r4 r a( b)
>           a2 g
>         }
>     >>

#### See also

Music Glossary: a due, part.

Notation Reference: Writing parts.

Snippets: Simultaneous notes.

Internals Reference: PartCombineMusic, Voice.

#### Known issues and warnings

`\partcombine` can only accept two voices.

When `printPartCombineTexts` is set, if the two voices play the same notes on and off, the part combiner may typeset `a2` more than once in a measure.

`\partcombine` cannot be inside `\times`.

`\partcombine` cannot be inside `\relative`.

Internally, the `\partcombine` interprets both arguments as `Voice`s and decides when the parts can be combined. When they have different durations they cannot be combined and are given the names `one` and `two`. Consequently, if the arguments switch to differently named Voice contexts, the events in those will be ignored. Likewise, partcombining isn’t designed to work with lyrics; when one of the voices is explicitly named in order to attach lyrics to it, the partcombining stops working.

`\partcombine` only observes onset times of notes. It cannot determine whether a previously started note is playing or not, leading to various problems.

#### Writing music in parallel

Music for multiple parts can be interleaved in input code. The function `\parallelMusic` accepts a list with the names of a number of variables to be created, and a musical expression. The content of alternate measures from the expression become the value of the respective variables, so you can use them afterwards to print the music.

Note: Bar checks `|` must be used, and the measures must be of the same length.

>     \parallelMusic #'(voiceA voiceB voiceC) {
>       % Bar 1
>       r8 g'16 c'' e'' g' c'' e'' r8 g'16 c'' e'' g' c'' e'' |
>       r16 e'8.~   e'4            r16 e'8.~   e'4            |
>       c'2                        c'2                        |

>       % Bar 2
>       r8 a'16 d'' f'' a' d'' f'' r8 a'16 d'' f'' a' d'' f'' |
>       r16 d'8.~   d'4            r16 d'8.~   d'4            |
>       c'2                        c'2                        |

>     }
>     \new StaffGroup <<
>       \new Staff << \voiceA \\ \voiceB >>
>       \new Staff { \clef bass \voiceC }
>     >>

Relative mode may be used. Note that the `\relative` command is not used inside `\parallelMusic` itself. The notes are relative to the preceding note in the voice, not to the previous note in the input – in other words, relative notes for `voiceA` ignore the notes in `voiceB`.

>     \parallelMusic #'(voiceA voiceB voiceC) {
>       % Bar 1
>       r8 g16 c e g, c e r8 g,16 c e g, c e  |
>       r16 e8.~ e4       r16 e8.~  e4        |
>       c2                c                   |

>       % Bar 2
>       r8 a,16 d f a, d f r8 a,16 d f a, d f |
>       r16 d8.~  d4       r16 d8.~  d4       |
>       c2                 c                  |

>      }
>     \new StaffGroup <<
>       \new Staff << \relative c'' \voiceA \\ \relative c' \voiceB >>
>       \new Staff \relative c' { \clef bass \voiceC }
>     >>

This works quite well for piano music. This example maps four consecutive measures to four variables:

>     global = {
>       \key g \major
>       \time 2/4
>     }

>     \parallelMusic #'(voiceA voiceB voiceC voiceD) {
>       % Bar 1
>       a8    b     c   d     |
>       d4          e         |
>       c16 d e fis d e fis g |
>       a4          a         |

>       % Bar 2
>       e8      fis  g     a   |
>       fis4         g         |
>       e16 fis g  a fis g a b |
>       a4           a         |

>       % Bar 3 ...
>     }

>     \score {
>       \new PianoStaff <<
>          \new Staff {
>            \global
>            <<
>              \relative c'' \voiceA
>              \\
>              \relative c'  \voiceB
>            >>
>          }
>          \new Staff {
>            \global \clef bass
>            <<
>              \relative c \voiceC
>              \\
>              \relative c \voiceD
>            >>
>          }
>       >>
>     }

#### See also

Learning Manual: Organizing pieces with variables.

Snippets: Simultaneous notes.

## 1.6 Staff notation

This section explains how to influence the appearance of staves, how to print scores with more than one staff, and how to add tempo indications and cue notes to staves.

### 1.6.1 Displaying staves

This section describes the different methods of creating and grouping staves.

#### Instantiating new staves

Staves (singular: staff) are created with the `\new` or `\context` commands. For details, see Creating contexts.

The basic staff context is `Staff`:

>     \new Staff { c4 d e f }

The `DrumStaff` context creates a five-line staff set up for a typical drum set. Each instrument is shown with a different symbol. The instruments are entered in drum mode following a `\drummode` command, with each instrument specified by name. For details, see Percussion staves.

>     \new DrumStaff {
>       \drummode { cymc hh ss tomh }
>     }

`RhythmicStaff` creates a single-line staff that only displays the rhythmic values of the input. Real durations are preserved. For details, see Showing melody rhythms.

>     \new RhythmicStaff { c4 d e f }

`TabStaff` creates a tablature with six strings in standard guitar tuning. For details, see Default tablatures.

>     \new TabStaff { c4 d e f }

There are two staff contexts specific for the notation of ancient music: `MensuralStaff` and `VaticanaStaff`. They are described in Pre-defined contexts.

The `GregorianTranscriptionStaff` context creates a staff to notate modern Gregorian chant. It does not show bar lines.

>     \new GregorianTranscriptionStaff { c4 d e f e d }

New single staff contexts may be defined. For details, see Defining new contexts.

#### See also

Music Glossary: staff, staves.

Notation Reference: Creating contexts, Percussion staves, Showing melody rhythms, Default tablatures, Pre-defined contexts, Staff symbol, Gregorian chant contexts, Mensural contexts, Defining new contexts.

Snippets: Staff notation.

Internals Reference: Staff, DrumStaff, GregorianTranscriptionStaff, RhythmicStaff, TabStaff, MensuralStaff, VaticanaStaff, StaffSymbol.

#### Grouping staves

Various contexts exist to group single staves together in order to form multi-stave systems. Each grouping context sets the style of the system start delimiter and the behavior of bar lines.

If no context is specified, the default properties will be used: the group is started with a vertical line, and the bar lines are not connected.

>     <<
>       \new Staff { c1 c }
>       \new Staff { c1 c }
>     >>

In the `StaffGroup` context, the group is started with a bracket and bar lines are drawn through all the staves.

>     \new StaffGroup <<
>       \new Staff { c1 c }
>       \new Staff { c1 c }
>     >>

In a `ChoirStaff`, the group starts with a bracket, but bar lines are not connected.

>     \new ChoirStaff <<
>       \new Staff { c1 c }
>       \new Staff { c1 c }
>     >>

In a `GrandStaff`, the group begins with a brace, and bar lines are connected between the staves.

>     \new GrandStaff <<
>       \new Staff { c1 c }
>       \new Staff { c1 c }
>     >>

The `PianoStaff` is identical to a `GrandStaff`, except that it supports printing the instrument name directly. For details, see Instrument names.

>     \new PianoStaff <<
>       \set PianoStaff.instrumentName = #"Piano"
>       \new Staff { c1 c }
>       \new Staff { c1 c }
>     >>

Each staff group context sets the property `systemStartDelimiter` to one of the following values: `SystemStartBar`, `SystemStartBrace`, or `SystemStartBracket`. A fourth delimiter, `SystemStartSquare`, is also available, but it must be explicitly specified.

New staff group contexts may be defined. For details, see Defining new contexts.

#### Selected Snippets

Use square bracket at the start of a staff group

The system start delimiter `SystemStartSquare` can be used by setting it explicitly in a `StaffGroup` or `ChoirStaffGroup` context.

>     \score {
>       \new StaffGroup { <<
>       \set StaffGroup.systemStartDelimiter = #'SystemStartSquare
>         \new Staff { c'4 d' e' f' }
>         \new Staff { c'4 d' e' f' }
>       >> }
>     }

Display bracket with only one staff in a system

If there is only one staff in one of the staff types `ChoirStaff` or `StaffGroup`, the bracket and the starting bar line will not be displayed as standard behavior. This can be changed by overriding the relevant properties.

Note that in contexts such as `PianoStaff` and `GrandStaff` where the systems begin with a brace instead of a bracket, another property has to be set, as shown on the second system in the example.

>     \markup \left-column {
>       \score {
>         \new StaffGroup <<
>           % Must be lower than the actual number of staff lines
>           \override StaffGroup.SystemStartBracket #'collapse-height = #1
>           \override Score.SystemStartBar #'collapse-height = #1
>           \new Staff {
>             c'1
>           }
>         >>
>         \layout { }
>       }
>       \null
>       \score {
>         \new PianoStaff <<
>           \override PianoStaff.SystemStartBrace #'collapse-height = #1
>           \override Score.SystemStartBar #'collapse-height = #1
>           \new Staff {
>             c'1
>           }
>         >>
>         \layout { }
>       }
>     }

Mensurstriche layout (bar lines between the staves)

The mensurstriche-layout where the bar lines do not show on the staves but between staves can be achieved with a `StaffGroup` instead of a `ChoirStaff`. The bar line on staves is blanked out by setting the `transparent` property.

>     global = {
>       \override Staff.BarLine #'transparent = ##t
>       s1 s
>       % the final bar line is not interrupted
>       \revert Staff.BarLine #'transparent
>       \bar "|."
>     }
>     \new StaffGroup \relative c'' {
>       <<
>         \new Staff { << \global { c1 c } >> }
>         \new Staff { << \global { c c } >> }
>       >>
>     }

#### See also

Music Glossary: brace, bracket, grand staff.

Notation Reference: Instrument names, Defining new contexts.

Snippets: Staff notation.

Internals Reference: Staff, StaffGroup, ChoirStaff, GrandStaff, PianoStaff, SystemStartBar, SystemStartBrace, SystemStartBracket, SystemStartSquare.

#### Nested staff groups

Staff-group contexts can be nested to arbitrary depths. In this case, each child context creates a new bracket adjacent to the bracket of its parent group.

>     \new StaffGroup <<
>       \new Staff { c2 c | c2 c }
>       \new StaffGroup <<
>         \new Staff { g2 g | g2 g }
>         \new StaffGroup \with {
>           systemStartDelimiter = #'SystemStartSquare
>         }
>         <<
>           \new Staff { e2 e | e2 e }
>           \new Staff { c2 c | c2 c }
>         >>
>       >>
>     >>

New nested staff group contexts can be defined. For details, see Defining new contexts.

#### Selected Snippets

Nesting staves

The property `systemStartDelimiterHierarchy` can be used to make more complex nested staff groups. The command `\set StaffGroup.systemStartDelimiterHierarchy` takes an alphabetical list of the number of staves produced. Before each staff a system start delimiter can be given. It has to be enclosed in brackets and takes as much staves as the brackets enclose. Elements in the list can be omitted, but the first bracket takes always the complete number of staves. The possibilities are `SystemStartBar`, `SystemStartBracket`, `SystemStartBrace`, and `SystemStartSquare`.

>     \new StaffGroup
>     \relative c'' <<
>       \set StaffGroup.systemStartDelimiterHierarchy
>         = #'(SystemStartSquare (SystemStartBrace (SystemStartBracket a
>                                  (SystemStartSquare b)  ) c ) d)
>       \new Staff { c1 }
>       \new Staff { c1 }
>       \new Staff { c1 }
>       \new Staff { c1 }
>       \new Staff { c1 }
>     >>

#### See also

Notation Reference: Grouping staves, Instrument names, Defining new contexts.

Snippets: Staff notation.

Internals Reference: StaffGroup, ChoirStaff, SystemStartBar, SystemStartBrace, SystemStartBracket, SystemStartSquare.

### 1.6.2 Modifying single staves

This section explains how to change specific attributes of one staff: for example, modifying the number of staff lines or the staff size. Methods to start and stop staves and set ossia sections are also described.

#### Staff symbol

The lines of a staff belong to the `StaffSymbol` grob. `StaffSymbol` properties can be modified to change the appearance of a staff, but they must be modified before the staff is created.

The number of staff lines may be changed. The clef position and the position of middle C may need to be modified to fit the new staff. For an explanation, refer to the snippet section in Clef.

>     \new Staff \with {
>       \override StaffSymbol #'line-count = #3
>     }
>     { d4 d d d }

Staff line thickness can be modified. The thickness of ledger lines and stems are also affected, since they depend on staff line thickness.

>     \new Staff \with {
>       \override StaffSymbol #'thickness = #3
>     }
>     { e4 d c b }

Ledger line thickness can be set independently of staff line thickness. In the example the two numbers are factors multiplying the staff line thickness and the staff line spacing. The two contributions are added to give the ledger line thickness.

>     \new Staff \with {
>       \override StaffSymbol #'ledger-line-thickness = #'(1 . 0.2)
>     }
>     { e4 d c b }

The distance between staff lines can be changed. This setting affects the spacing of ledger lines as well.

>     \new Staff \with {
>       \override StaffSymbol #'staff-space = #1.5
>     }
>     { a4 b c d }

Further details about the properties of `StaffSymbol` can be found in staff-symbol-interface.

Modifications to staff properties in the middle of a score can be placed between `\stopStaff` and `\startStaff`:

>     c2 c
>     \stopStaff
>     \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count = #2
>     \startStaff
>     b2 b
>     \stopStaff
>     \revert Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-count
>     \startStaff
>     a2 a

In general, `\startStaff` and `\stopStaff` can be used to stop or start a staff in the middle of a score.

>     c4 b a2
>     \stopStaff
>     b4 c d2
>     \startStaff
>     e4 d c2

#### Predefined commands

`\startStaff`, `\stopStaff`.

#### Selected Snippets

Making some staff lines thicker than the others

For pedagogical purposes, a staff line can be thickened (e.g., the middle line, or to emphasize the line of the G clef). This can be achieved by adding extra lines very close to the line that should be emphasized, using the `line-positions` property of the `StaffSymbol` object.

>     {
>       \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-positions = #'(-4 -2 -0.2 0 0.2 2 4)
>       d'4 e' f' g'
>     }

#### See also

Music Glossary: line, ledger line, staff.

Notation Reference: Clef.

Snippets: Staff notation.

Internals Reference: StaffSymbol, staff-symbol-interface.

#### Ossia staves

Ossia staves can be set by creating a new simultaneous staff in the appropriate location:

>     \new Staff \relative c'' {
>       c4 b d c
>       <<
>         { c4 b d c }
>         \new Staff { e4 d f e }
>       >>
>       c4 b c2
>     }

However, the above example is not what is usually desired. To create ossia staves that are above the original staff, have no time signature or clef, and have a smaller font size, tweaks must be used. The Learning Manual describes a specific technique to achieve this goal, beginning with Nesting music expressions.

The following example uses the `alignAboveContext` property to align the ossia staff. This method is most appropriate when only a few ossia staves are needed.

>     \new Staff = main \relative c'' {
>       c4 b d c
>       <<
>         { c4 b d c }

>         \new Staff \with {
>           \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
>           alignAboveContext = #"main"
>           fontSize = #-3
>           \override StaffSymbol #'staff-space = #(magstep -3)
>           \override StaffSymbol #'thickness = #(magstep -3)
>           firstClef = ##f
>         }
>         { e4 d f e }
>       >>
>       c4 b c2
>     }

If many isolated ossia staves are needed, creating an empty `Staff` context with a specific context id may be more appropriate; the ossia staves may then be created by calling this context and using `\startStaff` and `\stopStaff` at the desired locations. The benefits of this method are more apparent if the piece is longer than the following example.

>     <<
>       \new Staff = ossia \with {
>         \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
>         \override Clef #'transparent = ##t
>         fontSize = #-3
>         \override StaffSymbol #'staff-space = #(magstep -3)
>         \override StaffSymbol #'thickness = #(magstep -3)
>       }
>       { \stopStaff s1*6 }

>       \new Staff \relative c' {
>         c4 b c2
>         <<
>           { e4 f e2 }
>           \context Staff = ossia {
>             \startStaff e4 g8 f e2 \stopStaff
>           }
>         >>
>         g4 a g2 \break
>         c4 b c2
>         <<
>           { g4 a g2 }
>           \context Staff = ossia {
>             \startStaff g4 e8 f g2 \stopStaff
>           }
>         >>
>         e4 d c2
>       }
>     >>

Using the `\RemoveEmptyStaffContext` command to create ossia staves may be used as an alternative. This method is most convenient when ossia staves occur immediately following a line break. In this case, spacer rests do not need to be used at all; only `\startStaff` and `\stopStaff` are necessary. For more information about `\RemoveEmptyStaffContext`, see Hiding staves.

>     <<
>       \new Staff = ossia \with {
>         \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
>         \override Clef #'transparent = ##t
>         fontSize = #-3
>         \override StaffSymbol #'staff-space = #(magstep -3)
>         \override StaffSymbol #'thickness = #(magstep -3)
>       }
>       \new Staff \relative c' {
>         c4 b c2
>         e4 f e2
>         g4 a g2 \break
>         <<
>           { c4 b c2 }
>           \context Staff = ossia {
>             c4 e8 d c2 \stopStaff
>           }
>         >>
>         g4 a g2
>         e4 d c2
>       }
>     >>

>     \layout {
>       \context {
>         \RemoveEmptyStaffContext
>         \override VerticalAxisGroup #'remove-first = ##t
>       }
>     }

#### Selected Snippets

Vertically aligning ossias and lyrics

This snippet demonstrates the use of the context properties `alignBelowContext` and `alignAboveContext` to control the positioning of lyrics and ossias.

>     \paper {
>       ragged-right = ##t
>     }

>     \relative c' <<
>       \new Staff = "1" { c4 c s2 }
>       \new Staff = "2" { c4 c s2 }
>       \new Staff = "3" { c4 c s2 }
>       { \skip 2
>         <<
>           \lyrics {
>             \set alignBelowContext = #"1"
>             lyrics4 below
>           }
>           \new Staff \with {
>             alignAboveContext = #"3"
>             fontSize = #-2
>             \override StaffSymbol #'staff-space = #(magstep -2)
>             \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
>           } {
>             \times 4/6 {
>               \override TextScript #'padding = #3
>               c8[^"ossia above" d e d e f]
>             }
>           }
>         >>
>       }
>     >>

#### See also

Music Glossary: ossia, staff, Frenched staff.

Learning Manual: Nesting music expressions, Size of objects, Length and thickness of objects.

Notation Reference: Hiding staves.

Snippets: Staff notation.

Internals Reference: StaffSymbol.

#### Hiding staves

Staff lines can be hidden by removing the `Staff_symbol_engraver` from the `Staff` context. As an alternative, `\stopStaff` may be used.

>     \new Staff \with {
>       \remove "Staff_symbol_engraver"
>     }
>     \relative c''' { a8 f e16 d c b a2 }

Empty staves can be hidden by setting the `\RemoveEmptyStaffContext` command in the `\layout` block. In orchestral scores, this style is known as ‘Frenched Score’. By default, this command hides and removes all empty staves in a score except for those in the first system.

Note: A staff is considered empty when it contains only multi-measure rests, skips, spacer rests, or a combination of these elements.

>     \layout {
>       \context {
>         \RemoveEmptyStaffContext
>       }
>     }

>     \relative c' <<
>       \new Staff {
>         e4 f g a \break
>         b1 \break
>         a4 b c2
>       }
>       \new Staff {
>         c,4 d e f \break
>         R1 \break
>         f4 g c,2
>       }
>     >>

`\RemoveEmptyStaffContext` can also be used to create ossia sections for a staff. For details, see Ossia staves.

The `\AncientRemoveEmptyStaffContext` command may be used to hide empty staves in ancient music contexts. Similarly, `\RemoveEmptyRhythmicStaffContext` may be used to hide empty `RhythmicStaff` contexts.

#### Predefined commands

`\RemoveEmptyStaffContext`, `\AncientRemoveEmptyStaffContext`, `\RemoveEmptyRhythmicStaffContext`.

#### Selected Snippets

Removing the first empty line

The first empty staff can also be removed from the score by setting the `VerticalAxisGroup` property `remove-first`. This can be done globally inside the `\layout` block, or locally inside the specific staff that should be removed. In the latter case, you have to specify the context (`Staff` applies only to the current staff) in front of the property.

The lower staff of the second staff group is not removed, because the setting applies only to the specific staff inside of which it is written.

>     \layout {
>       \context {
>         \RemoveEmptyStaffContext
>         % To use the setting globally, uncomment the following line:
>         % \override VerticalAxisGroup #'remove-first = ##t
>       }
>     }
>     \new StaffGroup <<
>       \new Staff \relative c' {
>         e4 f g a \break
>         c1
>       }
>       \new Staff {
>         % To use the setting globally, comment this line,
>         % uncomment the line in the \layout block above
>         \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'remove-first = ##t
>         R1 \break
>         R
>       }
>     >>
>     \new StaffGroup <<
>       \new Staff \relative c' {
>         e4 f g a \break
>         c1
>       }
>       \new Staff {
>         R1 \break
>         R
>       }
>     >>

#### See also

Music Glossary: Frenched staff.

Notation Reference: Staff symbol, Ossia staves.

Snippets: Staff notation.

Internals Reference: ChordNames, FiguredBass, Lyrics, Staff, VerticalAxisGroup, Staff_symbol_engraver.

#### Known issues and warnings

Removing `Staff_symbol_engraver` also hides bar lines. If bar line visibility is forced, formatting errors may occur. In this case, use the following overrides instead of removing the engraver:

>     \override StaffSymbol #'stencil = ##f
>     \override NoteHead #'no-ledgers = ##t

### 1.6.3 Writing parts

This section explains how to insert tempo indications and instrument names into a score. Methods to quote other voices and format cue notes are also described.

#### Metronome marks

A basic metronome mark is simple to write:

>     \tempo 4 = 120
>     c2 d
>     e4. d8 c2

Tempo indications with text can be used instead:

>     \tempo "Allegretto"
>     c4 e d c
>     b4. a16 b c4 r4

Combining a metronome mark and text will automatically place the metronome mark within parentheses:

>     \tempo "Allegro" 4 = 160
>     g4 c d e
>     d4 b g2

In general, the text can be any markup object:

>     \tempo \markup { \italic Faster } 4 = 132
>     a8-. r8 b-. r gis-. r a-. r

A parenthesized metronome mark with no textual indication may be written by including an empty string in the input:

>     \tempo "" 8 = 96
>     d4 g e c

#### Selected Snippets

Printing metronome and rehearsal marks below the staff

By default, metronome and rehearsal marks are printed above the staff. To place them below the staff simply set the `direction` property of `MetronomeMark` or `RehearsalMark` appropriately.

>     \layout { ragged-right = ##f }

>     {
>       % Metronome marks below the staff
>       \override Score.MetronomeMark #'direction = #DOWN
>       \tempo 8. = 120
>       c''1

>       % Rehearsal marks below the staff
>       \override Score.RehearsalMark #'direction = #DOWN
>       \mark \default
>       c''1
>     }

Changing the tempo without a metronome mark

To change the tempo in MIDI output without printing anything, make the metronome mark invisible.

>     \score {
>       \new Staff \relative c' {
>         \tempo 4 = 160
>         c4 e g b
>         c4 b d c
>         \set Score.tempoHideNote = ##t
>         \tempo 4 = 96
>         d,4 fis a cis
>         d4 cis e d
>       }
>       \layout { }
>       \midi { }
>     }

Creating metronome marks in markup mode

New metronome marks can be created in markup mode, but they will not change the tempo in MIDI output.

>     \relative c' {
>       \tempo \markup {
>         \concat {
>           (
>           \smaller \general-align #Y #DOWN \note #"16." #1
>           " = "
>           \smaller \general-align #Y #DOWN \note #"8" #1
>           )
>         }
>       }
>       c1
>       c4 c' c,2
>     }

For more details, see Formatting text.

#### See also

Music Glossary: metronome, metronomic indication, tempo indication, metronome mark.

Notation Reference: Formatting text, MIDI output.

Snippets: Staff notation.

Internals Reference: MetronomeMark.

#### Instrument names

Instrument names can be printed on the left side of staves in the `Staff` and `PianoStaff` contexts. The value of `instrumentName` is used for the first staff, and the value of `shortInstrumentName` is used for all succeeding staves.

>     \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Violin "
>     \set Staff.shortInstrumentName = #"Vln "
>     c4.. g'16 c4.. g'16
>     \break
>     c1

Markup mode can be used to create more complicated instrument names:

>     \set Staff.instrumentName = \markup {
>       \column { "Clarinetti"
>                 \line { "in B" \smaller \flat } } }
>     c4 c,16 d e f g2

When two or more staff contexts are grouped together, the instrument names and short instrument names are centered by default. To center multi-line instrument names, `\center-column` must be used:

>     <<
>       \new Staff {
>         \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Flute"
>         f2 g4 f
>       }
>       \new Staff {
>         \set Staff.instrumentName = \markup \center-column {
>           Clarinet
>           \line { "in B" \smaller \flat }
>         }
>         c4 b c2
>       }
>     >>

However, if the instrument names are longer, the instrument names in a staff group may not be centered unless the `indent` and `short-indent` settings are increased. For details about these settings, see Horizontal dimensions.

>     \layout {
>       indent = 3.0\cm
>       short-indent = 1.5\cm
>     }

>     \relative c'' <<
>       \new Staff {
>         \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Alto Flute in G"
>         \set Staff.shortInstrumentName = #"Fl."
>         f2 g4 f \break
>         g4 f g2
>       }
>       \new Staff {
>         \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Clarinet"
>         \set Staff.shortInstrumentName = #"Clar."
>         c,4 b c2 \break
>         c2 b4 c
>       }
>     >>

To add instrument names to other contexts (such as `GrandStaff`, `ChoirStaff`, or `StaffGroup`), `Instrument_name_engraver` must be added to that context. For details, see Modifying context plug-ins.

Instrument names may be changed in the middle of a piece:

>     \set Staff.instrumentName = #"First"
>     \set Staff.shortInstrumentName = #"one"
>     c1 c c c \break
>     c1 c c c \break
>     \set Staff.instrumentName = #"Second"
>     \set Staff.shortInstrumentName = #"two"
>     c1 c c c \break
>     c1 c c c \break

If an instrument switch is needed, `\addInstrumentDefinition` may be used in combination with `\instrumentSwitch` to create a detailed list of the necessary changes for the switch. The `\addInstrumentDefinition` command has two arguments: an identifying string, and an association list of context properties and values to be used for the instrument. It must be placed in the toplevel scope. `\instrumentSwitch` is used in the music expression to declare the instrument switch:

>     \addInstrumentDefinition #"contrabassoon"
>       #`((instrumentTransposition . ,(ly:make-pitch -1 0 0))
>          (shortInstrumentName . "Cbsn.")
>          (clefGlyph . "clefs.F")
>          (middleCPosition . 6)
>          (clefPosition . 2)
>          (instrumentCueName . ,(make-bold-markup "cbsn."))
>          (midiInstrument . "bassoon"))

>     \new Staff \with {
>       instrumentName = #"Bassoon"
>     }
>     \relative c' {
>       \clef tenor
>       \compressFullBarRests
>       c2 g'
>       R1*16
>       \instrumentSwitch "contrabassoon"
>       c,,2 g \break
>       c,1 ~ | c1
>     }

#### See also

Notation Reference: Horizontal dimensions, Modifying context plug-ins.

Snippets: Staff notation.

Internals Reference: InstrumentName, PianoStaff, Staff.

#### Quoting other voices

It is very common for one voice to double some of the music from another voice. For example, the first and second violins may play the same notes during a passage of music. In LilyPond this is accomplished by letting one voice quote the other voice without having to re-enter it.

Before a part can be quoted, the `\addQuote` command must be used to initialize the quoted fragment. This command must be used in the toplevel scope. The first argument is an identifying string, and the second is a music expression:

>     flute = \relative c'' {
>       a4 gis g gis
>     }
>     \addQuote "flute" { \flute }

The `\quoteDuring` command is used to indicate the point where the quotation begins. It is followed by two arguments: the name of the quoted voice, as defined with `\addQuote`, and a music expression that indicates the duration of the quote, usually spacer rests or multi-measure rests. The corresponding music from the quoted voice is inserted into the music expression:

>     flute = \relative c'' {
>       a4 gis g gis
>     }
>     \addQuote "flute" { \flute }

>     \relative c' {
>       c4 cis \quoteDuring #"flute" { s2 }
>     }

If the music expression used for `\quoteDuring` contains anything but a spacer rest or multi-measure rest, a polyphonic situation is created, which is often not desirable:

>     flute = \relative c'' {
>       a4 gis g gis
>     }
>     \addQuote "flute" { \flute }

>     \relative c' {
>       c4 cis \quoteDuring #"flute" { c4 b }
>     }

Quotations recognize instrument transposition settings for both the source and target instruments if the `\transposition` command is used. For details about `\transposition`, see Instrument transpositions.

>     clarinet = \relative c'' {
>       \transposition bes
>       a4 gis g gis
>     }
>     \addQuote "clarinet" { \clarinet }

>     \relative c' {
>       c4 cis \quoteDuring #"clarinet" { s2 }
>     }

It is possible to tag quotations with unique names in order to process them in different ways. For details about this procedure, see Using tags.

#### Selected Snippets

Quoting another voice with transposition

Quotations take into account the transposition of both source and target. In this example, all instruments play sounding middle C; the target is an instrument in F. The target part may be transposed using `\transpose`. In this case, all the pitches (including the quoted ones) are transposed.

>     \addQuote clarinet {
>       \transposition bes
>       \repeat unfold 8 { d'16 d' d'8 }
>     }

>     \addQuote sax {
>       \transposition es'
>       \repeat unfold 16 { a8 }
>     }

>     quoteTest = {
>       % french horn
>       \transposition f
>       g'4
>       << \quoteDuring #"clarinet" { \skip 4 } s4^"clar." >>
>       << \quoteDuring #"sax" { \skip 4 } s4^"sax." >>
>       g'4
>     }

>     {
>       \set Staff.instrumentName =
>         \markup {
>           \center-column { Horn \line { in F } }
>         }
>       \quoteTest
>       \transpose c' d' << \quoteTest s4_"up a tone" >>
>     }

Quoting another voice

The `quotedEventTypes` property determines the music event types that are quoted. The default value is `(note-event rest-event)`, which means that only notes and rests of the quoted voice appear in the `\quoteDuring` expression. In the following example, a 16th rest is not quoted since `rest-event` is not in `quotedEventTypes`.

>     quoteMe = \relative c' {
>       fis4 r16 a8.-> b4\ff c
>     }
>     \addQuote quoteMe \quoteMe

>     original = \relative c'' {
>       c8 d s2
>       \once \override NoteColumn #'ignore-collision = ##t
>       es8 gis8
>     }

>     <<
>       \new Staff {
>         \set Staff.instrumentName = #"quoteMe"
>         \quoteMe
>       }
>       \new Staff {
>         \set Staff.instrumentName = #"orig"
>         \original
>       }
>       \new Staff \relative c'' <<
>         \set Staff.instrumentName = #"orig+quote"
>         \set Staff.quotedEventTypes =
>           #'(note-event articulation-event)
>         \original
>         \new Voice {
>           s4
>           \set fontSize = #-4
>           \override Stem #'length-fraction = #(magstep -4)
>           \quoteDuring #"quoteMe" { \skip 2. }
>         }
>       >>
>     >>

#### See also

Notation Reference: Instrument transpositions, Using tags.

Snippets: Staff notation.

Internals Reference: QuoteMusic, Voice.

#### Known issues and warnings

Only the contents of the first `Voice` occurring in an `\addQuote` command will be considered for quotation, so music cannot contain `\new` and `\context Voice` statements that would switch to a different Voice.

Quoting grace notes is broken and can even cause LilyPond to crash.

Quoting nested triplets may result in poor notation.

In earlier versions of LilyPond (pre 2.11), `addQuote` was written entirely in lower-case letters: `\addquote`.

#### Formatting cue notes

The previous section explains how to create quotations. The `\cueDuring` command is a more specialized form of `\quoteDuring`, being particularly useful for inserting cue notes into a part. The syntax is as follows:

>     \cueDuring #partname #voice music

This command copies the corresponding measures from partname into a `CueVoice` context. The `CueVoice` is created implicitly, and occurs simultaneously with music, which creates a polyphonic situation. The voice argument determines whether the cue notes should be notated as a first or second voice; `UP` corresponds to the first voice, and `DOWN` corresponds to the second.

>     oboe = \relative c'' {
>       r2 r8 d16 f e g f a
>       g8 g16 g g2.
>     }
>     \addQuote "oboe" { \oboe }

>     \new Voice \relative c'' {
>       \cueDuring #"oboe" #UP { R1 }
>       g2 c,
>     }

In the above example, the `Voice` context had to be explicitly declared, or else the entire music expression would belong to the `CueVoice` context.

The name of the cued instrument can be printed by setting the `instrumentCueName` property in the `CueVoice` context.

>     oboe = \relative c''' {
>       g4 r8 e16 f e4 d
>     }
>     \addQuote "oboe" { \oboe }

>     \new Staff \relative c'' <<
>       \new CueVoice \with {
>         instrumentCueName = "ob."
>       }
>       \new Voice {
>         \cueDuring #"oboe" #UP { R1 }
>         g4. b8 d2
>       }
>     >>

In addition to printing the name of the cued instrument, when cue notes end, the name of the original instrument should be printed, and any other changes introduced by the cued part should be undone. This can be accomplished by using `\addInstrumentDefinition` and `\instrumentSwitch`. For an example and explanation, see Instrument names.

The `\killCues` command removes cue notes from a music expression. This can be useful if cue notes need to be removed from a part but may be restored at a later time.

>     flute = \relative c''' {
>       r2 cis2 r2 dis2
>     }
>     \addQuote "flute" { \flute }

>     \new Voice \relative c'' {
>       \killCues {
>         \cueDuring #"flute" #UP { R1 }
>         g4. b8 d2
>       }
>     }

The `\transposedCueDuring` command is useful for adding instrumental cues from a completely different register. The syntax is similar to `\cueDuring`, but it requires one extra argument to specify the transposition of the cued instrument. For more information about transposition, see Instrument transpositions.

>     piccolo = \relative c''' {
>       \clef "treble^8"
>       R1
>       c8 c c e g2
>       a4 g g2
>     }
>     \addQuote "piccolo" { \piccolo }

>     cbassoon = \relative c, {
>       \clef "bass_8"
>       c4 r g r
>       \transposedCueDuring #"piccolo" #UP c,, { R1 }
>       c4 r g r
>     }

>     <<
>       \new Staff = "piccolo" \piccolo
>       \new Staff = "cbassoon" \cbassoon
>     >>

It is possible to tag cued parts with unique names in order to process them in different ways. For details about this procedure, see Using tags.

#### See also

Notation Reference: Instrument transpositions, Instrument names, Using tags.

Snippets: Staff notation.

Internals Reference: CueVoice, Voice.

#### Known issues and warnings

Collisions can occur with rests, when using `\cueDuring`, between `Voice` and `CueVoice` contexts.

## 1.7 Editorial annotations

This section discusses the various ways to change the appearance of notes and add analysis or educational emphasis.

### 1.7.1 Inside the staff

This section discusses how to add emphasis to elements that are inside the staff.

#### Selecting notation font size

The font size of notation elements may be altered. It does not change the size of variable symbols, such as beams or slurs.

Note: For font sizes of text, see Selecting font and font size.

>     \huge
>     c4.-> d8---3
>     \large
>     c4.-> d8---3
>     \normalsize
>     c4.-> d8---3
>     \small
>     c4.-> d8---3
>     \tiny
>     c4.-> d8---3
>     \teeny
>     c4.-> d8---3

Internally, this sets the `fontSize` property. This in turn causes the `font-size` property to be set in all layout objects. The value of `font-size` is a number indicating the size relative to the standard size for the current staff height. Each step up is an increase of approximately 12% of the font size. Six steps is exactly a factor of two. The Scheme function `magstep` converts a `font-size` number to a scaling factor. The `font-size` property can also be set directly, so that only certain layout objects are affected.

>     \set fontSize = #3
>     c4.-> d8---3
>     \override NoteHead #'font-size = #-4
>     c4.-> d8---3
>     \override Script #'font-size = #2
>     c4.-> d8---3
>     \override Stem #'font-size = #-5
>     c4.-> d8---3

Font size changes are achieved by scaling the design size that is closest to the desired size. The standard font size (for `font-size = #0`) depends on the standard staff height. For a 20pt staff, a 10pt font is selected.

The `font-size` property can only be set on layout objects that use fonts. These are the ones supporting the `font-interface` layout interface.

#### Predefined commands

`\teeny`, `\tiny`, `\small`, `\normalsize`, `\large`, `\huge`.

#### See also

Snippets: Editorial annotations.

Internals Reference: font-interface.

#### Fingering instructions

Fingering instructions can be entered using note-digit:

>     c4-1 d-2 f-4 e-3

Markup texts may be used for finger changes.

>     c4-1 d-2 f-4 c^\markup { \finger "2 - 3" }

A thumb-script can be added (e.g., in cello music) to indicate that a note should be played with the thumb.

>     <a_\thumb a'-3>2 <b_\thumb b'-3>

Fingerings for chords can also be added to individual notes of the chord by adding them after the pitches.

>     <c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5>2 <d-1 f-2 a-3 c-5>

Fingering instructions may be manually placed above or below the staff, see Direction and placement.

#### Selected Snippets

Controlling the placement of chord fingerings

The placement of fingering numbers can be controlled precisely.

>     \relative c' {
>       \set fingeringOrientations = #'(left)
>       <c-1 e-3 a-5>4
>       \set fingeringOrientations = #'(down)
>       <c-1 e-3 a-5>4
>       \set fingeringOrientations = #'(down right up)
>       <c-1 e-3 a-5>4
>       \set fingeringOrientations = #'(up)
>       <c-1 e-3 a-5>4
>       \set fingeringOrientations = #'(left)
>       <c-1>2
>       \set fingeringOrientations = #'(down)
>       <e-3>2
>     }

Allowing fingerings to be printed inside the staff

By default, vertically oriented fingerings are positioned outside the staff. However, this behavior can be canceled.

>     \relative c' {
>       <c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5>2
>       \once \override Fingering #'staff-padding = #'()
>       <c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5>2
>     }

Avoiding collisions with chord fingerings

Fingerings and string numbers applied to individual notes will automatically avoid beams and stems, but this is not true by default for fingerings and string numbers applied to the individual notes of chords. The following example shows how this default behavior can be overridden.

>     \relative c' {
>       \set fingeringOrientations = #'(up)
>       \set stringNumberOrientations = #'(up)
>       \set strokeFingerOrientations = #'(up)

>       % Default behavior
>       r8
>       <f c'-5>8
>       <f c'\5>8
>       <f c'-\rightHandFinger #2 >8

>       % Corrected to avoid collisions
>       r8
>       \override Fingering #'add-stem-support = ##t
>       <f c'-5>8
>       \override StringNumber #'add-stem-support = ##t
>       <f c'\5>8
>       \override StrokeFinger #'add-stem-support = ##t
>       <f c'-\rightHandFinger #2 >8
>     }

#### See also

Notation Reference: Direction and placement

Snippets: Editorial annotations.

Internals Reference: FingeringEvent, fingering-event, Fingering_engraver, New_fingering_engraver, Fingering.

#### Hidden notes

Hidden (or invisible or transparent) notes can be useful in preparing theory or composition exercises.

>     c4 d
>     \hideNotes
>     e4 f
>     \unHideNotes
>     g a
>     \hideNotes
>     b
>     \unHideNotes
>     c

Notation objects which are attached to invisible notes are still visible.

>     c4( d)
>     \hideNotes
>     e4(\p f)--

#### Predefined commands

`\hideNotes`, `\unHideNotes`.

#### See also

Snippets: Editorial annotations.

Internals Reference: Note_spacing_engraver, NoteSpacing.

#### Coloring objects

Individual objects may be assigned colors. Valid color names are listed in the List of colors.

>     \override NoteHead #'color = #red
>     c4 c
>     \override NoteHead #'color = #(x11-color 'LimeGreen)
>     d
>     \override Stem #'color = #blue
>     e

The full range of colors defined for X11 can be accessed by using the Scheme function `x11-color`. The function takes one argument; this can be a symbol in the form ’FooBar or a string in the form "FooBar". The first form is quicker to write and is more efficient. However, using the second form it is possible to access X11 colors by the multi-word form of its name.

If `x11-color` cannot make sense of the parameter then the color returned defaults to black.

>     \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #(x11-color 'SlateBlue2)
>     \set Staff.instrumentName = \markup {
>       \with-color #(x11-color 'navy) "Clarinet"
>     }

>     gis8 a
>     \override Beam #'color = #(x11-color "medium turquoise")
>     gis a
>     \override Accidental #'color = #(x11-color 'DarkRed)
>     gis a
>     \override NoteHead #'color = #(x11-color "LimeGreen")
>     gis a
>     % this is deliberate nonsense; note that the stems remain black
>     \override Stem #'color = #(x11-color 'Boggle)
>     b2 cis

Exact RGB colors can be specified using the Scheme function `rgb-color`.

>     \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'color = #(x11-color 'SlateBlue2)
>     \set Staff.instrumentName = \markup {
>       \with-color #(x11-color 'navy) "Clarinet"
>     }

>     \override Stem #'color = #(rgb-color 0 0 0)
>     gis8 a
>     \override Stem #'color = #(rgb-color 1 1 1)
>     gis8 a
>     \override Stem #'color = #(rgb-color 0 0 0.5)
>     gis4 a

#### See also

Notation Reference: List of colors, The `\tweak` command.

Snippets: Editorial annotations.

#### Known issues and warnings

An X11 color is not necessarily exactly the same shade as a similarly named normal color.

Not all X11 colors are distinguishable in a web browser, i.e., a web browser might not display a difference between `'LimeGreen` and `'ForestGreen`. For web use normal colors are recommended (i.e., `#blue`, `#green`, `#red`).

Notes in a chord cannot be colored with `\override`; use `\tweak` instead, see The `\tweak` command.

#### Parentheses

Objects may be parenthesized by prefixing `\parenthesize` to the music event. When prefixed to a chord, it parenthesizes every note. Individual notes inside a chord may also be parenthesized.

>     c2 \parenthesize d
>     c2 \parenthesize <c e g>
>     c2 <c \parenthesize e g>

Non-note objects may be parenthesized as well. For articulations, a hyphen is needed before the `\parenthesize` command.

>     c2-\parenthesize -. d
>     c2 \parenthesize r

#### See also

Snippets: Editorial annotations.

Internals Reference: Parenthesis_engraver, ParenthesesItem, parentheses-interface.

#### Known issues and warnings

Parenthesizing a chord prints parentheses around each individual note, instead of a single large parenthesis around the entire chord.

#### Stems

Whenever a note is found, a `Stem` object is created automatically. For whole notes and rests, they are also created but made invisible.

#### Predefined commands

`\stemUp`, `\stemDown`, `\stemNeutral`.

#### Selected Snippets

Default direction of stems on the center line of the staff

The default direction of stems on the center line of the staff is set by the `Stem` property `neutral-direction`.

>     \relative c'' {
>       a4 b c b
>       \override Stem #'neutral-direction = #up
>       a4 b c b
>       \override Stem #'neutral-direction = #down
>       a4 b c b
>     }

#### See also

Notation Reference: Direction and placement.

Snippets: Editorial annotations.

Internals Reference: Stem_engraver, Stem, stem-interface.

### 1.7.2 Outside the staff

This section discusses how to add emphasis to elements in the staff from outside of the staff.

#### Balloon help

Elements of notation can be marked and named with the help of a square balloon. The primary purpose of this feature is to explain notation.

>     \new Voice \with { \consists "Balloon_engraver" }
>     {
>       \balloonGrobText #'Stem #'(3 . 4) \markup { "I'm a Stem" }
>       a8
>       \balloonGrobText #'Rest #'(-4 . -4) \markup { "I'm a rest" }
>       r
>       <c, g'-\balloonText #'(-2 . -2) \markup { "I'm a note head" } c>2.
>     }

There are two music functions, `balloonGrobText` and `balloonText`; the former is used like `\once \override` to attach text to any grob, and the latter is used like `\tweak`, typically within chords, to attach text to an individual note.

Balloon text normally influences note spacing, but this can be altered:

>     \new Voice \with { \consists "Balloon_engraver" }
>     {
>       \balloonLengthOff
>       \balloonGrobText #'Stem #'(3 . 4) \markup { "I'm a Stem" }
>       a8
>       \balloonGrobText #'Rest #'(-4 . -4) \markup { "I'm a rest" }
>       r
>       \balloonLengthOn
>       <c, g'-\balloonText #'(-2 . -2) \markup { "I'm a note head" } c>2.
>     }

#### Predefined commands

`\balloonLengthOn`, `\balloonLengthOff`.

#### See also

Snippets: Editorial annotations.

Internals Reference: Balloon_engraver, BalloonTextItem, balloon-interface.

#### Grid lines

Vertical lines can be drawn between staves synchronized with the notes.

The `Grid_point_engraver` must be used to create the end points of the lines, while the `Grid_line_span_engraver` must be used to actually draw the lines. By default this centers grid lines horizontally below and to the left side of each note head. Grid lines extend from the middle lines of each staff. The `gridInterval` must specify the duration between the grid lines.

>     \layout {
>       \context {
>         \Staff
>         \consists "Grid_point_engraver"
>         gridInterval = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
>       }
>       \context {
>         \Score
>         \consists "Grid_line_span_engraver"
>       }
>     }

>     \score {
>       \new ChoirStaff <<
>         \new Staff \relative c'' {
>           \stemUp
>           c4. d8 e8 f g4
>         }
>         \new Staff \relative c {
>           \clef bass
>           \stemDown
>           c4 g' f e
>         }
>       >>
>     }

#### Selected Snippets

Grid lines: changing their appearance

The appearance of grid lines can be changed by overriding some of their properties.

>     \score {
>       \new ChoirStaff <<
>         \new Staff {
>           \relative c'' {
>             \stemUp
>             c'4. d8 e8 f g4
>           }
>         }
>         \new Staff {
>           \relative c {
>             % this moves them up one staff space from the default position
>             \override Score.GridLine #'extra-offset = #'(0.0 . 1.0)
>             \stemDown
>             \clef bass
>             \once \override Score.GridLine #'thickness = #5.0
>             c4
>             \once \override Score.GridLine #'thickness = #1.0
>             g'4
>             \once \override Score.GridLine #'thickness = #3.0
>             f4
>             \once \override Score.GridLine #'thickness = #5.0
>             e4
>           }
>         }
>       >>
>       \layout {
>         \context {
>           \Staff
>           % set up grids
>           \consists "Grid_point_engraver"
>           % set the grid interval to one quarter note
>           gridInterval = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
>         }
>         \context {
>           \Score
>           \consists "Grid_line_span_engraver"
>           % this moves them to the right half a staff space
>           \override NoteColumn #'X-offset = #-0.5
>         }
>       }
>     }

#### See also

Snippets: Editorial annotations.

Internals Reference: Grid_line_span_engraver, Grid_point_engraver, GridLine, GridPoint, grid-line-interface, grid-point-interface.

#### Analysis brackets

Brackets are used in musical analysis to indicate structure in musical pieces. Simple horizontal brackets are supported.

>     \layout {
>       \context {
>         \Voice
>         \consists "Horizontal_bracket_engraver"
>       }
>     }
>     \relative c'' {
>       c2\startGroup
>       d\stopGroup
>     }

Analysis brackets may be nested.

>     \layout {
>       \context {
>         \Voice
>         \consists "Horizontal_bracket_engraver"
>       }
>     }
>     \relative c'' {
>       c4\startGroup\startGroup
>       d4\stopGroup
>       e4\startGroup
>       d4\stopGroup\stopGroup
>     }

#### See also

Snippets: Editorial annotations.

Internals Reference: Horizontal_bracket_engraver, HorizontalBracket, horizontal-bracket-interface, Staff.

## 1.8 Text

This section explains how to include text (with various formatting) in music scores.

Some text elements that are not dealt with here are discussed in other specific sections: Vocal music, Titles and headers.

### 1.8.1 Writing text

This section introduces different ways of adding text to a score.

Note: To write accented and special text (such as characters from other languages), simply insert the characters directly into the LilyPond file. The file must be saved as UTF-8. For more information, see Text encoding.

#### Text scripts

Simple “quoted text” indications may be added to a score, as demonstrated in the following example. Such indications may be manually placed above or below the staff, using the syntax described in Direction and placement.

>     a8^"pizz." g f e a4-"scherz." f

This syntax is actually a shorthand; more complex text formatting may be added to a note by explicitly using a `\markup` block, as described in Formatting text.

>     a8^\markup { \italic pizz. } g f e
>     a4_\markup { \tiny scherz. \bold molto } f

By default, text indications do not influence the note spacing. However, their widths can be taken into account: in the following example, the first text string does not affect spacing, whereas the second one does.

>     a8^"pizz." g f e
>     \textLengthOn
>     a4_"scherzando" f

#### Predefined commands

`\textLengthOn`, `\textLengthOff`.

#### See also

Notation Reference: Formatting text, Direction and placement.

Snippets: Text.

Internals Reference: TextScript.

#### Known issues and warnings

Checking to make sure that text scripts and lyrics are within the margins is a relatively large computational task. To speed up processing, LilyPond does not perform such calculations by default; to enable it, use

>     \override Score.PaperColumn #'keep-inside-line = ##t

#### Text spanners

Some performance indications, e.g., rallentando or accelerando, are written as text and are extended over multiple notes with dotted lines. Such objects, called “spanners”, may be created from one note to another using the following syntax:

>     \override TextSpanner #'(bound-details left text) = "rit."
>     b1\startTextSpan
>     e,\stopTextSpan

The string to be printed is set through object properties. By default it is printed in italic characters, but different formatting can be obtained using `\markup` blocks, as described in Formatting text.

>     \override TextSpanner #'(bound-details left text) =
>       \markup { \upright "rit." }
>     b1\startTextSpan c
>     e,\stopTextSpan

The line style, as well as the text string, can be defined as an object property. This syntax is described in Line styles.

#### Predefined commands

`\textSpannerUp`, `\textSpannerDown`, `\textSpannerNeutral`.

#### See also

Notation Reference: Line styles, Dynamics.

Snippets: Text.

Internals Reference: TextSpanner.

#### Text marks

Various text elements may be added to a score using the syntax described in Rehearsal marks:

>     c4
>     \mark "Allegro"
>     c c c

This syntax makes it possible to put any text on a bar line; more complex text formatting may be added using a `\markup` block, as described in Formatting text:

>     <c e>1
>     \mark \markup { \italic { colla parte } }
>     <d f>2 <e g>
>     <c f aes>1

This syntax also allows to print special signs, like coda, segno or fermata, by specifying the appropriate symbol name as explained in Music notation inside markup:

>     <bes f>2 <aes d>
>     \mark \markup { \musicglyph #"scripts.ufermata" }
>     <e g>1

Such objects are only typeset above the top staff of the score; depending on whether they are specified at the end or the middle of a bar, they can be placed above the bar line or between notes. When specified at a line break, the mark will be printed at the beginning of the next line.

>     \mark "Allegro"
>     c1 c
>     \mark "assai" \break
>     c  c

#### Selected Snippets

Printing marks at the end of a line or a score

Marks can be printed at the end of the current line, instead of the beginning of the following line. This is particularly useful when a mark has to be added at the end of a score – when there is no next line.

In such cases, the right end of the mark has to be aligned with the final bar line, as demonstrated on the second line of this example.

>     \relative c'' {
>       \override Score.RehearsalMark #'break-visibility = #begin-of-line-invisible
>       g2 c
>       d,2 a'
>       \mark \default
>       \break
>       g2 b,
>       c1 \bar "||"
>       \override Score.RehearsalMark #'self-alignment-X = #RIGHT
>       \mark "D.C. al Fine"
>     }

Aligning marks with various notation objects

If specified, text marks may be aligned with notation objects other than bar lines. These objects include `ambitus`, `breathing-sign`, `clef`, `custos`, `staff-bar`, `left-edge`, `key-cancellation`, `key-signature`, and `time-signature`.

In such cases, text marks will be horizontally centered above the object. However this can be changed, as demonstrated on the second line of this example (in a score with multiple staves, this setting should be done for all the staves).

>     \relative c' {
>       e1

>       % the RehearsalMark will be centered above the Clef
>       \override Score.RehearsalMark #'break-align-symbols = #'(clef)
>       \key a \major
>       \clef treble
>       \mark "↓"
>       e1

>       % the RehearsalMark will be centered above the TimeSignature
>       \override Score.RehearsalMark #'break-align-symbols = #'(time-signature)
>       \key a \major
>       \clef treble
>       \time 3/4
>       \mark "↓"
>       e2.

>       % the RehearsalMark will be centered above the KeySignature
>       \override Score.RehearsalMark #'break-align-symbols = #'(key-signature)
>       \key a \major
>       \clef treble
>       \time 4/4
>       \mark "↓"
>       e1

>       \break
>       e1

>       % the RehearsalMark will be aligned with the left edge of the KeySignature
>       \once \override Score.KeySignature #'break-align-anchor-alignment = #LEFT
>       \mark "↓"
>       \key a \major
>       e1

>       % the RehearsalMark will be aligned with the right edge of the KeySignature
>       \once \override Score.KeySignature #'break-align-anchor-alignment = #RIGHT
>       \key a \major
>       \mark "↓"
>       e1

>       % the RehearsalMark will be aligned with the left edge of the KeySignature
>       % and then shifted right by one unit.
>       \once \override Score.KeySignature #'break-align-anchor = #1
>       \key a \major
>       \mark "↓"
>       e1
>     }

Printing marks on every staff

Although text marks are normally only printed above the topmost staff, they may also be printed on every staff.

>     \score {
>       <<
>         \new Staff { c''1 \mark "molto" c'' }
>         \new Staff { c'1 \mark "molto" c' }
>       >>
>       \layout {
>         \context {
>           \Score
>           \remove "Mark_engraver"
>           \remove "Staff_collecting_engraver"
>         }
>         \context {
>           \Staff
>           \consists "Mark_engraver"
>           \consists "Staff_collecting_engraver"
>         }
>       }
>     }

#### See also

Notation Reference: Rehearsal marks, Formatting text, Music notation inside markup, The Feta font.

Snippets: Text.

Internals Reference: RehearsalMark.

#### Known issues and warnings

If a mark is entered at the end of the last bar of the score (where there is no next line), then the mark will not be printed at all.

#### Separate text

A `\markup` block can exist by itself, outside of any any `\score` block, as a “top-level expression”. This syntax is described in File structure.

>     \markup {
>       Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow...
>     }

This allows printing text separately from the music, which is particularly useful when the input file contains several music pieces, as described in Multiple scores in a book.

>     \score {
>       c'1
>     }
>     \markup {
>       Tomorrow, and tomorrow, and tomorrow...
>     }
>     \score {
>       c'1
>     }

Separate text blocks can be spread over multiple pages, making it possible to print text documents or books entirely within LilyPond. This feature, and the specific syntax it requires, are described in Multi-page markup.

#### Predefined commands

`\markup`, `\markuplines`.

#### Selected Snippets

Stand-alone two-column markup

Stand-alone text may be arranged in several columns using `\markup` commands:

>     \markup {
>       \fill-line {
>         \hspace #1
>         \column {
>           \line { O sacrum convivium }
>           \line { in quo Christus sumitur, }
>           \line { recolitur memoria passionis ejus, }
>           \line { mens impletur gratia, }
>           \line { futurae gloriae nobis pignus datur. }
>           \line { Amen. }
>         }
>         \hspace #2
>         \column {
>           \line { \italic { O sacred feast } }
>           \line { \italic { in which Christ is received, } }
>           \line { \italic { the memory of His Passion is renewed, } }
>           \line { \italic { the mind is filled with grace, } }
>           \line { \italic { and a pledge of future glory is given to us. } }
>           \line { \italic { Amen. } }
>         }
>         \hspace #1
>       }
>     }

#### See also

Notation Reference: Formatting text, File structure, Multiple scores in a book, Multi-page markup.

Snippets: Text.

Internals Reference: TextScript.

### 1.8.2 Formatting text

This section presents basic and advanced text formatting, using the `\markup` mode specific syntax.

#### Text markup introduction

A `\markup` block is used to typeset text with an extensible syntax called “markup mode”.

The markup syntax is similar to LilyPond’s usual syntax: a `\markup` expression is enclosed in curly braces `{ … }`. A single word is regarded as a minimal expression, and therefore does not need to be enclosed with braces.

Unlike simple “quoted text” indications, `\markup` blocks may contain nested expressions or markup commands, entered using the backslash `\` character. Such commands only affect the first following expression.

>     a1-\markup intenso
>     a2^\markup { poco \italic più forte  }
>     c e1
>     d2_\markup { \italic "string. assai" }
>     e
>     b1^\markup { \bold { molto \italic  agitato } }
>     c

A `\markup` block may also contain quoted text strings. Such strings are treated as minimal text expressions, and therefore any markup command or special character (such as `\` and `#`) will be printed verbatim without affecting the formatting of the text. Double quotation marks themselves may be printed by preceding them with backslashes.

>     a1^"\italic markup..."
>     a_\markup { \italic "... prints \"italic\" letters!" }
>     a a

To be treated as a distinct expression, a list of words needs to be enclosed with double quotes or preceded by a command. The way markup expressions are defined affects how these expressions will be stacked, centered and aligned; in the following example, the second `\markup` expression is treated the same as the first one:

>     c1^\markup { \center-column { a bbb c } }
>     c1^\markup { \center-column { a { bbb c } } }
>     c1^\markup { \center-column { a \line { bbb c } } }
>     c1^\markup { \center-column { a "bbb c" } }

Markups can be stored in variables. Such variables may be directly attached to notes:

>     allegro = \markup { \bold \large Allegro }

>     {
>       d''8.^\allegro
>       d'16 d'4 r2
>     }

An exhaustive list of `\markup`-specific commands can be found in Text markup commands.

#### See also

Notation Reference: Text markup commands.

Snippets: Text.

Installed files: ‘`scm/markup.scm`’.

#### Known issues and warnings

Syntax errors for markup mode can be confusing.

#### Selecting font and font size

Basic font switching is supported in markup mode:

>     d1^\markup {
>       \bold { Più mosso }
>       \italic { non troppo \underline Vivo }
>     }
>     r2 r4 r8
>     d,_\markup { \italic quasi \smallCaps Tromba }
>     f1 d2 r

The size of the characters can also be altered in different ways:

- the font size can be set to predefined standard sizes,
- the font size can be set to an absolute value,
- the font size can also be changed relatively to its previous value.

The following example demonstrates these three methods:

>     f1_\markup {
>       \tiny espressivo
>       \large e
>       \normalsize intenso
>     }
>     a^\markup {
>       \fontsize #5 Sinfonia
>       \fontsize #2 da
>       \fontsize #3 camera
>     }
>     bes^\markup { (con
>       \larger grande
>       \smaller emozione
>       \magnify #0.6 { e sentimento } )
>     }
>     d c2 r8 c bes a g1

Text may be printed as subscript or superscript. By default these are printed in a smaller size, but a normal size can be used as well:

>     \markup {
>       \column {
>         \line { 1 \super st movement }
>         \line { 1 \normal-size-super st movement
>           \sub { (part two) }  }
>       }
>     }

The markup mode provides an easy way to select alternate font families. The default serif font, of roman type, is automatically selected unless specified otherwise; on the last line of the following example, there is no difference between the first and the second word.

>     \markup {
>       \column {
>         \line { Act \number 1 }
>         \line { \sans { Scene I. } }
>         \line { \typewriter { Verona. An open place. } }
>         \line { Enter \roman Valentine and Proteus. }
>       }
>     }

Some of these font families, used for specific items such as numbers or dynamics, do not provide all characters, as mentioned in New dynamic marks and Manual repeat marks.

When used inside a word, some font-switching or formatting commands may produce an unwanted blank space. This can easily be solved by concatenating the text elements together:

>     \markup {
>       \column {
>         \line {
>           \concat { 1 \super st }
>           movement
>         }
>         \line {
>           \concat { \dynamic p , }
>           \italic { con dolce espressione }
>         }
>       }
>     }

An exhaustive list of font switching, and custom font usage commands can be found in Font.

Defining custom font sets is also possible, as explained in Fonts.

#### Predefined commands

`\teeny`, `\tiny`, `\small`, `\normalsize`, `\large`, `\huge`, `\smaller`, `\larger`.

#### See also

Notation Reference: Font, New dynamic marks, Manual repeat marks, Fonts.

Snippets: Text.

Internals Reference: TextScript.

Installed files: ‘`scm/define-markup-commands.scm`’.

#### Text alignment

This subsection discusses how to place text in markup mode. Markup objects can also be moved as a whole, using the syntax described in Moving objects.

Markup objects may be aligned in different ways. By default, a text indication is aligned on its left edge: in the following example, there is no difference between the first and the second markup.

>     d1-\markup { poco }
>     f
>     d-\markup { \left-align poco }
>     f
>     d-\markup { \center-align { poco } }
>     f
>     d-\markup { \right-align poco }

Horizontal alignment may be fine-tuned using a numeric value:

>     a1-\markup { \halign #-1 poco }
>     e'
>     a,-\markup { \halign #0 poco }
>     e'
>     a,-\markup { \halign #0.5 poco }
>     e'
>     a,-\markup { \halign #2 poco }

Some objects may have alignment procedures of their own, and therefore are not affected by these commands. It is possible to move such markup objects as a whole, as shown for instance in Text marks.

Vertical alignment is a bit more complex. As stated above, markup objects can be moved as a whole; however, it is also possible to move specific elements inside a markup block. In this case, the element to be moved needs to be preceded with an anchor point, that can be another markup element or an invisible object. The following example demonstrates these two possibilities; the last markup in this example has no anchor point, and therefore is not moved.

>     d2^\markup {
>       Acte I
>       \raise #2 { Scène 1 }
>     }
>     a'
>     g_\markup {
>       \null
>       \lower #4 \bold { Très modéré }
>     }
>     a
>     d,^\markup {
>       \raise #4 \italic { Une forêt. }
>     }
>     a'4 a g2 a

Some commands can affect both the horizontal and vertical alignment of text objects in markup mode. Any object affected by these commands must be preceded with an anchor point:

>     d2^\markup {
>       Acte I
>       \translate #'(-1 . 2) "Scène 1"
>     }
>     a'
>     g_\markup {
>       \null
>       \general-align #Y #3.2 \bold "Très modéré"
>     }
>     a
>     d,^\markup {
>       \null
>       \translate-scaled #'(-1 . 2) \teeny "Une forêt."
>     }
>     a'4 a g2 a

A markup object may include several lines of text. In the following example, each element or expression is placed on its own line, either left-aligned or centered:

>     \markup {
>       \column {
>         a
>         "b c"
>         \line { d e f }
>       }
>       \hspace #10
>       \center-column {
>         a
>         "b c"
>         \line { d e f }
>       }
>     }

Similarly, a list of elements or expressions may be spread to fill the entire horizontal line width (if there is only one element, it will be centered on the page). These expressions can, in turn, include multi-line text or any other markup expression:

>     \markup {
>       \fill-line {
>         \line { William S. Gilbert }
>         \center-column {
>           \huge \smallCaps "The Mikado"
>           or
>           \smallCaps "The Town of Titipu"
>         }
>         \line { Sir Arthur Sullivan }
>       }
>     }
>     \markup {
>       \fill-line { 1885 }
>     }

Long text indications can also be automatically wrapped accordingly to the given line width. These will be either left-aligned or justified, as shown in the following example.

>     \markup {
>       \column {
>         \line  \smallCaps { La vida breve }
>         \line \bold { Acto I }
>         \wordwrap \italic {
>           (La escena representa el corral de una casa de
>           gitanos en el Albaicín de Granada. Al fondo una
>           puerta por la que se ve el negro interior de
>           una Fragua, iluminado por los rojos resplandores
>           del fuego.)
>         }
>         \hspace #0

>         \line \bold { Acto II }
>         \override #'(line-width . 50)
>         \justify \italic {
>           (Calle de Granada. Fachada de la casa de Carmela
>           y su hermano Manuel con grandes ventanas abiertas
>           a través de las que se ve el patio
>           donde se celebra una alegre fiesta)
>         }
>       }
>     }

An exhaustive list of text alignment commands can be found in Align.

#### See also

Learning Manual: Moving objects.

Notation Reference: Align, Text marks.

Snippets: Text.

Internals Reference: TextScript.

Installed files: ‘`scm/define-markup-commands.scm`’.

#### Graphic notation inside markup

Various graphic objects may be added to a score, using markup commands.

Some markup commands allow decoration of text elements with graphics, as demonstrated in the following example.

>     \markup \fill-line {
>       \center-column {
>         \circle Jack
>         \box "in the box"
>         \null
>         \line {
>           Erik Satie
>           \hspace #3
>           \bracket "1866 - 1925"
>         }
>         \null
>         \rounded-box \bold Prelude
>       }
>     }

Some commands may require an increase in the padding around the text; this is achieved with some markup commands exhaustively described in Align.

>     \markup \fill-line {
>       \center-column {
>         \box "Charles Ives (1874 - 1954)"
>         \null
>         \box \pad-markup #2 "THE UNANSWERED QUESTION"
>         \box \pad-x #8 "A Cosmic Landscape"
>         \null
>       }
>     }
>     \markup \column {
>       \line {
>         \hspace #10
>         \box \pad-to-box #'(-5 . 20) #'(0 . 5)
>           \bold "Largo to Presto"
>       }
>       \pad-around #3
>           "String quartet keeps very even time,
>     Flute quartet keeps very uneven time."
>     }

Other graphic elements or symbols may be printed without requiring any text. As with any markup expression, such objects can be combined.

>     \markup {
>       \combine
>         \draw-circle #4 #0.4 ##f
>         \filled-box #'(-4 . 4) #'(-0.5 . 0.5) #1
>       \hspace #5

>       \center-column {
>         \triangle ##t
>         \combine
>           \draw-line #'(0 . 4)
>           \arrow-head #Y #DOWN ##f
>       }
>     }

Advanced graphic features include the ability to include external image files converted to the Encapsulated PostScript format (eps), or to directly embed graphics into the input file, using native PostScript code. In such a case, it may be useful to explicitely specify the size of the drawing, as demonstrated below:

>     c1^\markup {
>       \combine
>         \epsfile #X #10 #"./context-example.eps"
>         \with-dimensions #'(0 . 6) #'(0 . 10)
>         \postscript #"
>           -2 3 translate
>           2.7 2 scale
>           newpath
>           2 -1 moveto
>           4 -2 4 1 1 arct
>           4 2 3 3 1 arct
>           0 4 0 3 1 arct
>           0 0 1 -1 1 arct
>           closepath
>           stroke"
>       }
>     c

An exhaustive list of graphics-specific commands can be found in Graphic.

#### See also

Notation Reference: Graphic, Editorial annotations.

Snippets: Text.

Internals Reference: TextScript.

Installed files: ‘`scm/define-markup-commands.scm`’, ‘`scm/stencil.scm`’.

#### Music notation inside markup

Various musical notation elements may be added to a score, inside a markup object.

Notes and accidentals can be entered using markup commands:

>     a2 a^\markup {
>       \note #"4" #1
>       =
>       \note-by-number #1 #1 #1.5
>     }
>     b1_\markup {
>       \natural \semiflat \flat
>       \sesquiflat \doubleflat
>     }
>     \glissando
>     a1_\markup {
>       \natural \semisharp \sharp
>       \sesquisharp \doublesharp
>     }
>     \glissando b

Other notation objects may also be printed in markup mode:

>     g1 bes
>     ees-\markup {
>       \finger 4
>       \tied-lyric #"~"
>       \finger 1
>     }
>     fis_\markup { \dynamic rf }
>     bes^\markup {
>       \beam #8 #0.1 #0.5
>     }
>     cis
>     d-\markup {
>       \markalphabet #8
>       \markletter #8
>     }

More generally, any available musical symbol may be included separately in a markup object, as demonstrated below; an exhaustive list of these symbols and their names can be found in The Feta font.

>     c2
>     c'^\markup { \musicglyph #"eight" }
>     c,4
>     c,8._\markup { \musicglyph #"clefs.G_change" }
>     c16
>     c2^\markup { \musicglyph #"timesig.neomensural94" }

Another way of printing non-text glyphs is described in Fonts explained. This is useful for printing braces of various sizes.

The markup mode also supports diagrams for specific instruments:

>     c1^\markup {
>       \fret-diagram-terse #"x;x;o;2;3;2;"
>     }
>     c^\markup {
>       \harp-pedal #"^-v|--ov^"
>     }
>     c
>     c^\markup {
>       \combine
>         \musicglyph #"accordion.accDiscant"
>         \combine
>           \raise #0.5 \musicglyph #"accordion.accDot"
>           \raise #1.5 \musicglyph #"accordion.accDot"
>     }

Such diagrams are documented in Instrument Specific Markup.

A whole score can even be nested inside a markup object. In such a case, the nested `\score` block must contain a `\layout` block, as demonstrated here:

>     c4 d^\markup {
>       \score {
>         \relative c' { c4 d e f }
>         \layout { }
>       }
>     }
>     e f |
>     c d e f

An exhaustive list of music notation related commands can be found in Music.

#### See also

Notation Reference: Music, The Feta font, Fonts explained.

Snippets: Text.

Internals Reference: TextScript.

Installed files: ‘`scm/define-markup-commands.scm`’, ‘`scm/fret-diagrams.scm`’, ‘`scm/harp-pedals.scm`’.

#### Multi-page markup

Although standard markup objects are not breakable, a specific syntax makes it possible to enter lines of text that can spread over multiple pages:

>     \markuplines {
>       \justified-lines {
>         A very long text of justified lines.
>         ...
>       }
>       \wordwrap-lines {
>         Another very long paragraph.
>         ...
>       }
>       ...
>     }

This syntax accepts a list of markups, that can be

- the result of a markup list command,
- a list of markups,
- a list of markup lists.

An exhaustive list of markup list commands can be found in Text markup list commands.

#### See also

Notation Reference: Text markup list commands, New markup list command definition.

Snippets: Text.

Internals Reference: TextScript.

Installed files: ‘`scm/define-markup-commands.scm`’.

#### Predefined commands

`\markuplines`.

### 1.8.3 Fonts

This section presents the way fonts are handled, and how they may be changed in scores.

#### Fonts explained

Fonts are handled through several libraries. FontConfig is used to detect available fonts on the system; the selected fonts are rendered using Pango.

Music notation fonts can be described as a set of specific glyphs, ordered in several families. The following syntax allows various LilyPond `feta` non-text fonts to be used directly in markup mode:

>     a1^\markup {
>       \vcenter {
>         \override #'(font-encoding . fetaBraces)
>         \lookup #"brace120"
>         \override #'(font-encoding . fetaNumber)
>         \column { 1 3 }
>         \override #'(font-encoding . fetaDynamic)
>         sf
>         \override #'(font-encoding . fetaMusic)
>         \lookup #"noteheads.s0petrucci"
>       }
>     }

However, all these glyphs except the braces of various sizes contained in `fetaBraces` are available using the simpler syntax described in Music notation inside markup.

When using the glyphs contained in `fetaBraces`, the size of the brace is specified by the numerical part of the glyph name, in arbitrary units. Any integer from `0` to `575` inclusive may be specified, `0` giving the smallest brace. The optimum value must be determined by trial and error. These glyphs are all left braces; right braces may be obtained by rotation, see Rotating objects.

Three families of text fonts are made available: the roman (serif) font, that defaults to New Century Schoolbook, the sans font and the monospaced typewriter font – these last two families are determined by the Pango installation.

Each family may include different shapes and series. The following example demonstrates the ability to select alternate families, shapes, series and sizes. The value supplied to `font-size` is the required change from the default size.

>     \override Score.RehearsalMark #'font-family = #'typewriter
>     \mark \markup "Ouverture"
>     \override Voice.TextScript #'font-shape = #'italic
>     \override Voice.TextScript #'font-series = #'bold
>     d2.^\markup "Allegro"
>     \override Voice.TextScript #'font-size = #-3
>     c4^smaller

A similar syntax may be used in markup mode, however in this case it is preferable to use the simpler syntax explained in Selecting font and font size:

>     \markup {
>       \column {
>         \line {
>           \override #'(font-shape . italic)
>           \override #'(font-size . 4)
>           Idomeneo,
>         }
>         \line {
>           \override #'(font-family . typewriter)
>           {
>             \override #'(font-series . bold)
>             re
>             di
>           }
>           \override #'(font-family . sans)
>           Creta
>         }
>       }
>     }

Although it is easy to switch between preconfigured fonts, it is also possible to use other fonts, as explained in the following sections: Single entry fonts and Entire document fonts.

#### See also

Notation Reference: The Feta font, Music notation inside markup, Selecting font and font size, Font.

#### Single entry fonts

Any font that is installed on the operating system and recognized by FontConfig may be used in a score, using the following syntax:

>     \override Staff.TimeSignature #'font-name = #"Charter"
>     \override Staff.TimeSignature #'font-size = #2
>     \time 3/4

>     a1_\markup {
>       \override #'(font-name . "Vera Bold")
>         { Vera Bold }
>     }

The following command displays a list of all available fonts on the operating system:

>     lilypond -dshow-available-fonts x

The last argument of the command can be anything, but has to be present.

#### See also

Notation Reference: Fonts explained, Entire document fonts.

Snippets: Text.

Installed files: ‘`lily/font-config-scheme.cc`’.

#### Entire document fonts

It is possible to change the fonts to be used as the default fonts in the roman, sans and typewriter font families by specifying them, in that order, as shown in the example below. For an explanation of fonts, see Fonts explained.

>     \paper  {
>       myStaffSize = #20
>       #(define fonts
>         (make-pango-font-tree "Times New Roman"
>                               "Nimbus Sans"
>                               "Luxi Mono"
>                                (/ myStaffSize 20)))
>     }

>     \relative c'{
>       c1-\markup {
>         roman,
>         \sans sans,
>         \typewriter typewriter. }
>     }

#### See also

Notation Reference: Fonts explained, Single entry fonts, Selecting font and font size, Font.

# 2. Specialist notation

This chapter explains how to create musical notation for specific types of instrument or in specific styles.

## 2.1 Vocal music

This section explains how to typeset vocal music, and make sure that the lyrics will be aligned with the notes of their melody.

### 2.1.1 Common notation for vocal music

This section discusses issues related to vocal music in general, and to some particular styles of vocal music.

#### References for vocal music and lyrics

Various issues may arise when engraving vocal music. Some of these are discussed in this section, while others are explained elsewhere:

- Most styles of vocal music use written text as lyrics. An introduction to this notation is to be found in Setting simple songs.
- Vocal music is likely to require the use of `markup` mode, either for lyrics of for other text elements (character’s names, etc.). This syntax is described in Text markup introduction.
- Lead sheets may be printed by combining vocal parts and ‘chord mode’; this syntax is explained in Chord notation.
- ‘Ambitus’ may be added at the beginning of vocal staves, as explained in Ambitus.
- Vocal parts may be printed using traditional clefs, as shown in Clef.
- Ancient vocal music is supported, as explained in Ancient notation.

#### Opera

TBC

#### Song books

TBC

#### Selected Snippets

Simple lead sheet

When put together, chord names, a melody, and lyrics form a lead sheet:

>     <<
>       \chords { c2 g:sus4 f e }
>       \relative c'' {
>         a4 e c8 e r4
>         b2 c4( d)
>       }
>       \addlyrics { One day this shall be free __ }
>     >>

#### See also

Notation Reference: Chord notation.

#### Spoken music

Such effects as ‘parlato’ or ‘Sprechgesang’ require perfomers to speak without pitch but still with rhythm; these are notated by cross note heads, as demonstrated in Special note heads.

#### Chants

TBC

#### Ancient vocal music

TBC

#### See also

Notation Reference: Ancient notation.

### 2.1.2 Entering lyrics

#### Lyrics explained

Since LilyPond input files are text, there is at least one issue to consider when working with vocal music: song texts must be interpreted as text, not notes. For example, the input `d` should be interpreted as a one letter syllable, not the note D. Therefore, a special lyric mode has to be used, either explicitely or using some abbreviated methods.

Lyrics are entered in a special input mode, which can be introduced by the keyword `\lyricmode`, or by using `\addlyrics` or `\lyricsto`. In this mode you can enter lyrics, with punctuation and accents, and the input `d` is not parsed as a pitch, but rather as a one letter syllable. Syllables are entered like notes, but with pitches replaced by text. For example,

>     \lyricmode { Twin-4 kle4 twin- kle litt- le star2 }

There are two main methods to specify the horizontal placement of the syllables, either by specifying the duration of each syllable explicitly, like in the example above, or by automatically aligning the lyrics to a melody or other voice of music, using `\addlyrics` or `\lyricsto`.

A word or syllable of lyrics begins with an alphabetic character, and ends with any space or digit. The following characters can be any character that is not a digit or white space.

Any character that is not a digit or white space will be regarded as part of the syllable; one important consequence of this is that a word can end with `}`, which often leads to the following mistake:

>     \lyricmode { lah- lah}

In this example, the `}` is included in the final syllable, so the opening brace is not balanced and the input file will probably not compile.

Similarly, a period which follows an alphabetic sequence is included in the resulting string. As a consequence, spaces must be inserted around property commands: do not write

>     \override Score.LyricText #'font-shape = #'italic

but instead use

>     \override Score . LyricText #'font-shape = #'italic

In order to assign more than one syllable to a single note, you can surround them with quotes or use a `_` character, to get spaces between syllables, or use tilde symbol (`~`) to get a lyric tie.

>     \time 3/4
>     \relative c' { c2 e4 g2 e4 }
>     \addlyrics { gran- de_a- mi- go }
>     \addlyrics { pu- "ro y ho-" nes- to }
>     \addlyrics { pu- ro~y~ho- nes- to }

The lyric tie is implemented with the Unicode character `U+203F`; therefore a font that includes this glyph (such as DejaVuLGC) has to be used. More explanations about text and non-text fonts can be found in Fonts.

To enter lyrics with characters from non-English languages, or with accented and special characters (such as the heart symbol or slanted quotes), simply insert the characters directly into the input file and save it with UTF-8 encoding. See Text encoding, for more info.

>     \relative c' { e4 f e d e f e2 }
>     \addlyrics { He said: “Let my peo ple go”. }

To use normal quotes in lyrics, add a backslash before the quotes. For example,

>     \relative c' { \time 3/4 e4 e4. e8 d4 e d c2. }
>     \addlyrics { "\"I" am so lone- "ly\"" said she }

The full definition of a word start in Lyrics mode is somewhat more complex.

A word in Lyrics mode begins with: an alphabetic character, `_`, `?`, `!`, `:`, `'`, the control characters `^A` through `^F`, `^Q` through `^W`, `^Y`, `^^`, any 8-bit character with ASCII code over 127, or a two-character combination of a backslash followed by one of ```, `'`, `"`, or `^`.

To define variables containing lyrics, the function `lyricmode` must be used.

>     verseOne = \lyricmode { Joy to the world the Lord is come }
>     \score {
>       <<
>         \new Voice = "one" \relative c'' {
>           \autoBeamOff
>           \time 2/4
>           c4 b8. a16 g4. f8 e4 d c2
>         }
>         \addlyrics { \verseOne }
>       >>
>     }

#### See also

Notation Reference: Fonts.

Internals Reference: LyricText, LyricSpace.

#### Setting simple songs

The easiest way to add lyrics to a melody is to append

>     \addlyrics { the lyrics }

to a melody. Here is an example,

>     \time 3/4
>     \relative c' { c2 e4 g2. }
>     \addlyrics { play the game }

More stanzas can be added by adding more `\addlyrics` sections

>     \time 3/4
>     \relative c' { c2 e4 g2. }
>     \addlyrics { play the game }
>     \addlyrics { speel het spel }
>     \addlyrics { joue le jeu }

The command `\addlyrics` cannot handle polyphony settings. For these cases you should use `\lyricsto` and `\lyricmode`, as will be introduced in Lyrics explained.

#### Working with lyrics and variables

To define variables containing lyrics, the function `\lyricmode` must be used. You do not have to enter durations though, if you add `\addlyrics` or `\lyricsto` when invoking your variable.

>     verseOne = \lyricmode { Joy to the world the Lord is come }
>     \score {
>      <<
>        \new Voice = "one" \relative c'' {
>          \autoBeamOff
>          \time 2/4
>          c4 b8. a16 g4. f8 e4 d c2
>        }
>        \addlyrics { \verseOne }
>      >>
>     }

For different or more complex orderings, the best way is to setup the hierarchy of staves and lyrics first, e.g.,

>     \new ChoirStaff <<
>       \new Voice = "soprano" { music }
>       \new Lyrics = "sopranoLyrics" { s1 }
>       \new Lyrics = "tenorLyrics" { s1 }
>       \new Voice = "tenor" { music }
>     >>

and then combine the appropriate melodies and lyric lines

>     \context Lyrics = sopranoLyrics \lyricsto "soprano"
>     the lyrics

The final input would resemble

>     <<\new ChoirStaff << setup the music >>
>      \lyricsto "soprano" etc
>      \lyricsto "alto" etc
>     etc
>     >>

#### See also

Internals Reference: LyricCombineMusic, Lyrics.

### 2.1.3 Aligning lyrics to a melody

Aligning of text with melodies can be made automatically, but if you specify the durations of the syllables it can also be made manually. Lyrics aligning and typesetting are prepared with the help of skips, hyphens and extender lines.

Lyrics are printed by interpreting them in the context called Lyrics.

>     \new Lyrics \lyricmode …

There are two main methods to specify the horizontal placement of the syllables:

- by automatically aligning the lyrics to a melody or other voice of music, using `\addlyrics` or `\lyricsto`.
- or by specifying the duration of each syllable explicitly, using `\lyricmode`

#### Automatic syllable durations

The lyrics can be aligned under a given melody automatically. This is achieved by combining the melody and the lyrics with the `\lyricsto` expression

>     \new Lyrics \lyricsto name …

This aligns the lyrics to the notes of the Voice context called name, which must already exist. Therefore normally the `Voice` is specified first, and then the lyrics are specified with `\lyricsto`. The command `\lyricsto` switches to `\lyricmode` mode automatically, so the `\lyricmode` keyword may be omitted.

The following example uses different commands for entering lyrics.

>     <<
>       \new Voice = "one" \relative c'' {
>         \autoBeamOff
>         \time 2/4
>         c4 b8. a16 g4. f8 e4 d c2
>       }

>     % not recommended: left aligns syllables
>       \new Lyrics \lyricmode { Joy4 to8. the16 world!4. the8 Lord4 is come.2 }

>     % wrong: durations needed
>       \new Lyrics \lyricmode { Joy to the earth! the Sa -- viour reigns. }

>     %correct
>       \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" { No more let sins and sor -- rows grow. }
>     >>

The second stanza is not properly aligned because the durations were not specified. A solution for that would be to use `\lyricsto`.

The `\addlyrics` command is actually just a convenient way to write a more complicated LilyPond structure that sets up the lyrics.

>     { MUSIC }
>     \addlyrics { LYRICS }

is the same as

>     \new Voice = "blah" { music }
>     \new Lyrics \lyricsto "blah" { LYRICS }

#### Manual syllable durations

Lyrics can also be entered without `\addlyrics` or `\lyricsto`. In this case, syllables are entered like notes – but with pitches replaced by text – and the duration of each syllable must be entered explicitly. For example:

>     play2 the4 game2.
>     sink2 or4 swim2.

The alignment to a melody can be specified with the `associatedVoice` property,

>     \set associatedVoice = #"lala"

The value of the property (here: `"lala"`) should be the name of a Voice context. Without this setting, extender lines will not be formatted properly.

Here is an example demonstrating manual lyric durations,

>     << \new Voice = "melody" {
>         \time 3/4
>         c2 e4 g2.
>      }
>      \new Lyrics \lyricmode {
>        \set associatedVoice = #"melody"
>        play2 the4 game2.
>      } >>

#### See also

Internals Reference: Lyrics.

#### Multiple syllables to one note

In order to assign more than one syllable to a single note, you can surround them with quotes or use a `_` character, to get spaces between syllables, or use tilde symbol (`~`) to get a lyric tie1.

>     \time 3/4
>     \relative c' { c2 e4 g2 e4 }
>     \addlyrics { gran- de_a- mi- go }
>     \addlyrics { pu- "ro y ho-" nes- to }
>     \addlyrics { pu- ro~y~ho- nes- to }

#### See also

Internals Reference: LyricCombineMusic.

#### Multiple notes to one syllable

Sometimes, particularly in Medieval music, several notes are to be sung on one single syllable; such vocalises are called melismas, or melismata.

You can define melismata entirely in the lyrics, by entering `_` for every extra note that has to be added to the melisma.

Additionaly, you can make an extender line to be typeset to indicate the melisma in the score, writing a double underscore next to the first syllable of the melisma. This example shows the three elements that are used for this purpose (all of them surrounded by spaces): double hyphens to separate syllables in a word, underscores to add notes to a melisma, and a double underscore to put an extender line.

>     { \set melismaBusyProperties = #'()
>      c d( e) f f( e) e e  }
>     \addlyrics
>      { Ky -- _ _ ri __ _ _ _  e }

In this case, you can also have ties and slurs in the melody if you set `melismaBusyProperties`, as is done in the example above.

However, the `\lyricsto` command can also detect melismata automatically: it only puts one syllable under a tied or slurred group of notes. If you want to force an unslurred group of notes to be a melisma, insert `\melisma` after the first note of the group, and `\melismaEnd` after the last one, e.g.,

>     <<
>       \new Voice = "lala" {
>         \time 3/4
>         f4 g8
>         \melisma
>         f e f
>         \melismaEnd
>         e2
>       }
>       \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lala" {
>         la di __ daah
>       }
>     >>

In addition, notes are considered a melisma if they are manually beamed, and automatic beaming (see Setting automatic beam behavior) is switched off.

A complete example of a SATB score setup is in section Vocal ensembles.

#### Predefined commands

`\melisma`, `\melismaEnd`.

#### See also

#### Known issues and warnings

Melismata are not detected automatically, and extender lines must be inserted by hand.

#### Skipping notes

Making a lyric line run slower than the melody can be achieved by inserting `\skip`s into the lyrics. For every `\skip`, the text will be delayed another note. The `\skip` command must be followed by a valid duration, but this is ignored when `\skip` is used in lyrics.

For example,

>     \relative c' { c c g' }
>     \addlyrics {
>       twin -- \skip 4
>       kle
>     }

#### Extenders and hyphens

In the last syllable of a word, melismata are sometimes indicated with a long horizontal line starting in the melisma syllable, and ending in the next one. Such a line is called an extender line, and it is entered as ‘`__` ’ (note the spaces before and after the two underscore characters).

Note: Melismata are indicated in the score with extender lines, which are entered as one double underscore; but short melismata can also be entered by skipping individual notes, which are entered as single underscore characters; these do not make an extender line to be typeset by default.

Centered hyphens are entered as ‘`--` ’ between syllables of a same word (note the spaces before and after the two hyphen characters). The hyphen will be centered between the syllables, and its length will be adjusted depending on the space between the syllables.

In tightly engraved music, hyphens can be removed. Whether this happens can be controlled with the `minimum-distance` (minimum distance between two syllables) and the `minimum-length` (threshold below which hyphens are removed).

#### See also

Internals Reference: LyricExtender, LyricHyphen

#### Lyrics and repeats

TBC

### 2.1.4 Specific uses of lyrics

Often, different stanzas of one song are put to one melody in slightly differing ways. Such variations can still be captured with `\lyricsto`.

#### Divisi lyrics

You can display alternate (or divisi) lyrics by naming voice contexts and attaching lyrics to those specific contexts.

>     \score{ <<
>       \new Voice = "melody" {
>         \relative c' {
>           c4
>           <<
>             { \voiceOne c8 e }
>             \new Voice = "splitpart" { \voiceTwo c4 }
>           >>
>           \oneVoice c4 c | c
>         }
>       }
>       \new Lyrics \lyricsto "melody" { we shall not o- ver- come }
>       \new Lyrics \lyricsto "splitpart" { will }
>     >> }

You can use this trick to display different lyrics for a repeated section.

>     \score{ <<
>       \new Voice = "melody" \relative c' {
>         c2 e | g e | c1 |
>         \new Voice = "verse" \repeat volta 2 {c4 d e f | g1 | }
>         a2 b | c1}
>       \new Lyrics = "mainlyrics" \lyricsto melody \lyricmode {
>         do mi sol mi do
>         la si do }
>       \context Lyrics = "mainlyrics" \lyricsto verse \lyricmode {
>        do re mi fa sol }
>       \new Lyrics = "repeatlyrics" \lyricsto verse \lyricmode {
>        dodo rere mimi fafa solsol }
>     >>
>     }

#### Lyrics independent of notes

In some complex vocal music, it may be desirable to place lyrics completely independently of notes. Music defined inside `lyricrhythm` disappears into the `Devnull` context, but the rhythms can still be used to place the lyrics.

>     voice = {
>       c''2
>       \tag #'music { c''2 }
>       \tag #'lyricrhythm { c''4. c''8 }
>       d''1
>     }

>     lyr = \lyricmode { I like my cat! }

>     <<
>       \new Staff \keepWithTag #'music \voice
>       \new Devnull="nowhere" \keepWithTag #'lyricrhythm \voice
>       \new Lyrics \lyricsto "nowhere" \lyr
>       \new Staff { c'8 c' c' c' c' c' c' c'
>       c' c' c' c' c' c' c' c' }
>     >>

This method is recommended only if the music in the `Devnull` context does not contain melismata. Melismata are defined by the `Voice` context. Connecting lyrics to a `Devnull` context makes the voice/lyrics links to get lost, and so does the info on melismata. Therefore, if you link lyrics to a `Devnull` context, the implicit melismata get ignored.

#### Spacing out syllables

To increase the spacing between lyrics, set the minimum-distance property of LyricSpace.

>     {
>       c c c c
>       \override Lyrics.LyricSpace #'minimum-distance = #1.0
>       c c c c
>     }
>     \addlyrics {
>       longtext longtext longtext longtext
>       longtext longtext longtext longtext
>     }

To make this change for all lyrics in the score, set the property in the layout.

>     \score {
>       \relative c' {
>       c c c c
>       c c c c
>       }
>       \addlyrics {
>       longtext longtext longtext longtext
>       longtext longtext longtext longtext
>       }
>       \layout {
>         \context {
>           \Lyrics
>           \override LyricSpace #'minimum-distance = #1.0
>         }
>       }
>     }

#### Selected Snippets

Checking to make sure that text scripts and lyrics are within the margins is a relatively large computational task. To speed up processing, LilyPond does not perform such calculations by default; to enable it, use

>     \override Score.PaperColumn #'keep-inside-line = ##t

To make lyrics avoid bar lines as well, use

>     \layout {
>       \context {
>         \Lyrics
>           \consists "Bar_engraver"
>           \consists "Separating_line_group_engraver"
>           \override BarLine #'transparent = ##t
>       }
>     }

#### Centering lyrics between staves

TBC

### 2.1.5 Stanzas

#### Adding stanza numbers

Stanza numbers can be added by setting `stanza`, e.g.,

>     \new Voice {
>       \time 3/4 g2 e4 a2 f4 g2.
>     } \addlyrics {
>       \set stanza = #"1. "
>       Hi, my name is Bert.
>     } \addlyrics {
>       \set stanza = #"2. "
>       Oh, ché -- ri, je t'aime
>     }

These numbers are put just before the start of the first syllable.

#### Adding dynamics marks to stanzas

Stanzas differing in loudness may be indicated by putting a dynamics mark before each stanza. In LilyPond, everything coming in front of a stanza goes into the `StanzaNumber` object; dynamics marks are no different. For technical reasons, you have to set the stanza outside `\lyricmode`:

>     text = {
>       \set stanza = \markup { \dynamic "ff" "1. " }
>       \lyricmode {
>         Big bang
>       }
>     }

>     <<
>       \new Voice = "tune" {
>         \time 3/4
>         g'4 c'2
>       }
>     \new Lyrics \lyricsto "tune" \text
>     >>

#### Adding singers’ names to stanzas

Names of singers can also be added. They are printed at the start of the line, just like instrument names. They are created by setting `vocalName`. A short version may be entered as `shortVocalName`.

>     \new Voice {
>       \time 3/4 g2 e4 a2 f4 g2.
>     } \addlyrics {
>       \set vocalName = #"Bert "
>       Hi, my name is Bert.
>     } \addlyrics {
>       \set vocalName = #"Ernie "
>       Oh, ché -- ri, je t'aime
>     }

#### Stanzas with different rhythms

#### Ignoring melismata

One possibility is that the text has a melisma in one stanza, but multiple syllables in another one. One solution is to make the faster voice ignore the melisma. This is done by setting `ignoreMelismata` in the Lyrics context.

>     <<
>       \relative c' \new Voice = "lahlah" {
>         \set Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
>         c4
>         \slurDotted
>         f8.[( g16])
>         a4
>       }
>       \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" {
>         more slow -- ly
>       }
>       \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" {
>         go
>         \set ignoreMelismata = ##t
>         fas -- ter
>         \unset ignoreMelismata
>         still
>       }
>     >>

#### Known issues and warnings

Unlike most `\set` commands, `\set ignoreMelismata` does not work if prefixed with `\once`. It is necessary to use `\set` and `\unset` to bracket the lyrics where melismata are to be ignored.

#### Switching to an alternative melody

More complex variations in text underlay are possible. It is possible to switch the melody for a line of lyrics during the text. This is done by setting the `associatedVoice` property. In the example

the text for the first stanza is set to a melody called ‘lahlah’,

>     \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" {
>       Ju -- ras -- sic Park
>     }

The second stanza initially is set to the `lahlah` context, but for the syllable ‘ran’, it switches to a different melody. This is achieved with

>     \set associatedVoice = alternative

Here, `alternative` is the name of the `Voice` context containing the triplet.

This command must be one syllable too early, before ‘Ty’ in this case. In other words, changing the associatedVoice happens one step later than expected. This is for technical reasons, and it is not a bug.

>     \new Lyrics \lyricsto "lahlah" {
>       \set associatedVoice = alternative % applies to "ran"
>       Ty --
>       ran --
>       no --
>       \set associatedVoice = lahlah % applies to "rus"
>       sau -- rus Rex
>     }

The underlay is switched back to the starting situation by assigning `lahlah` to `associatedVoice`.

#### Printing stanzas at the end

Sometimes it is appropriate to have one stanza set to the music, and the rest added in verse form at the end of the piece. This can be accomplished by adding the extra verses into a `\markup` section outside of the main score block. Notice that there are two different ways to force linebreaks when using `\markup`.

>     melody = \relative c' {
>     e d c d | e e e e |
>     d d e d | c1 |
>     }

>     text = \lyricmode {
>     \set stanza = #"1." Ma- ry had a lit- tle lamb,
>     its fleece was white as snow.
>     }

>     \score{ <<
>       \new Voice = "one" { \melody }
>       \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \text
>     >>
>       \layout { }
>     }
>     \markup { \column{
>       \line{ Verse 2. }
>       \line{ All the children laughed and played }
>       \line{ To see a lamb at school. }
>       }
>     }
>     \markup{
>       \wordwrap-string #"
>       Verse 3.

>       Mary took it home again,

>       It was against the rule."
>     }

#### Printing stanzas at the end in multiple columns

When a piece of music has many verses, they are often printed in multiple columns across the page. An outdented verse number often introduces each verse. The following example shows how to produce such output in LilyPond.

>     melody = \relative c' {
>       c c c c | d d d d
>     }

>     text = \lyricmode {
>       \set stanza = #"1." This is verse one.
>       It has two lines.
>     }

>     \score{ <<
>         \new Voice = "one" { \melody }
>         \new Lyrics \lyricsto "one" \text
>        >>
>       \layout { }
>     }

>     \markup {
>       \fill-line {
>         \hspace #0.1 % moves the column off the left margin;
>             % can be removed if space on the page is tight
>          \column {
>           \line { \bold "2."
>             \column {
>               "This is verse two."
>               "It has two lines."
>             }
>           }
>           \hspace #0.1 % adds vertical spacing between verses
>           \line { \bold "3."
>             \column {
>               "This is verse three."
>               "It has two lines."
>             }
>           }
>         }
>         \hspace #0.1  % adds horizontal spacing between columns;
>             % if they are still too close, add more " " pairs
>             % until the result looks good
>          \column {
>           \line { \bold "4."
>             \column {
>               "This is verse four."
>               "It has two lines."
>             }
>           }
>           \hspace #0.1 % adds vertical spacing between verses
>           \line { \bold "5."
>             \column {
>               "This is verse five."
>               "It has two lines."
>             }
>           }
>         }
>       \hspace #0.1 % gives some extra space on the right margin;
>           % can be removed if page space is tight
>       }
>     }

#### See also

Internals Reference: LyricText, StanzaNumber.

## 2.2 Keyboard and other multi-staff instruments

This section discusses several aspects of music notation that are unique to keyboard instruments and other instruments notated on many staves, such as harps and vibraphones. For the purposes of this section this entire group of multi-staff instruments is called “keyboards” for short, even though some of them do not have a keyboard.

### 2.2.1 Common notation for keyboards

This section discusses notation issues that may arise for most keyboard instruments.

#### References for keyboards

Keyboard instruments are usually notated with Piano staves. These are two or more normal staves coupled with a brace. The same notation is also used for other keyed instruments. Organ music is normally written with two staves inside a `PianoStaff` group and third, normal staff for the pedals.

The staves in keyboard music are largely independent, but sometimes voices can cross between the two staves. This section discusses notation techniques particular to keyboard music.

Several common issues in keyboard music are covered elsewhere:

- Keyboard music usually contains multiple voices and the number of voices may change regularly; this is described in Collision resolution.
- Keyboard music can be written in parallel, as described in Writing music in parallel.
- Fingerings are indicated with Fingering instructions.
- Organ pedal indications are inserted as articulations, see List of articulations.
- Vertical grid lines can be shown with Grid lines.
- Keyboard music often contains Laissez vibrer ties as well as ties on arpeggios and tremolos, described in Ties.
- Placing arpeggios across multiple voices and staves is covered in Arpeggio.
- Tremolo marks are described in Tremolo repeats.
- Several of the tweaks that can occur in keyboard music are demonstrated in Real music example.
- Hidden notes can be used to produce ties that cross voices, as shown in Other uses for tweaks.

#### See also

Learning Manual: Real music example, Other uses for tweaks.

Notation Reference: Grouping staves, Instrument names, Collision resolution, Writing music in parallel, Fingering instructions, List of articulations, Grid lines, Ties, Arpeggio, Tremolo repeats.

Internals Reference: PianoStaff.

Snippets: Keyboards.

#### Known issues and warnings

Dynamics are not automatically centered, but workarounds do exist. One option is the ‘piano centered dynamics’ template under Piano templates; another option is to increase the `staff-padding` of dynamics as discussed in objects Moving objects.

#### Changing staff manually

Voices can be switched between staves manually, using the command

>     \change Staff = staffname

The string staffname is the name of the staff. It switches the current voice from its current staff to the staff called staffname. Typical values for staffname are `"up"` and `"down"`, or `"RH"` and `"LH"`.

Cross-staff notes are beamed automatically:

>     \new PianoStaff <<
>       \new Staff = "up" {
>         <e' c'>8
>         \change Staff = "down"
>         g8 fis g
>         \change Staff = "up"
>         <g'' c''>8
>         \change Staff = "down"
>         e8 dis e
>         \change Staff = "up"
>       }
>       \new Staff = "down" {
>         \clef bass
>         % keep staff alive
>         s1
>       }
>     >>

If the beaming needs to be tweaked, make any changes to the stem directions first. The beam positions are then measured from the center of the staff that is closest to the beam. For a simple example of beam tweaking, see notation Fixing overlapping notation.

#### See also

Learning Manual: Fixing overlapping notation.

Notation Reference: Stems, Automatic beams.

Snippets: Keyboards.

Internals Reference: Beam, ContextChange.

#### Changing staff automatically

Voices can be made to switch automatically between the top and the bottom staff. The syntax for this is

>     \autochange …music…

This will create two staves inside the current staff group (usually a `PianoStaff`), called `"up"` and `"down"`. The lower staff will be in the bass clef by default. The autochanger switches on the basis of the pitch (middle C is the turning point), and it looks ahead skipping over rests to switch in advance.

>     \new PianoStaff {
>       \autochange {
>         g4 a b c'
>         d'4 r a g
>       }
>     }

A `\relative` section that is outside of `\autochange` has no effect on the pitches of the music, so if necessary, put `\relative` inside `\autochange`.

If additional control is needed over the individual staves, they can be created manually with the names `"up"` and `"down"`. The `\autochange` command will then switch its voice between the existing staves.

Note: If staves are created manually, they must be named `"up"` and `"down"`.

For example, staves must be created manually in order to place a key signature in the lower staff:

>     \new PianoStaff <<
>       \new Staff = "up" {
>         \new Voice = "melOne" {
>           \key g \major
>           \autochange \relative c' {
>             g8 b a c b d c e
>             d8 r fis, g a2
>           }
>         }
>       }
>       \new Staff = "down" {
>         \key g \major
>         \clef bass
>       }
>     >>

#### See also

Notation Reference: Changing staff manually.

Snippets: Keyboards.

Internals Reference: AutoChangeMusic.

#### Known issues and warnings

The staff switches may not end up in optimal places. For high quality output, staff switches should be specified manually.

Chords will not be split across the staves; they will be assigned to a staff based on the first note named in the chord construct.

#### Staff-change lines

Whenever a voice switches to another staff, a line connecting the notes can be printed automatically:

>     \new PianoStaff <<
>       \new Staff = "one" {
>         \showStaffSwitch
>         c1
>         \change Staff = "two"
>         b2 a
>       }
>       \new Staff = "two" {
>         \clef bass
>         s1*2
>       }
>     >>

#### Predefined commands

`\showStaffSwitch`, `\hideStaffSwitch`.

#### See also

Snippets: Keyboards.

Internals Reference: Note_head_line_engraver, VoiceFollower.

#### Cross-staff stems

Chords that cross staves may be produced:

>     \new PianoStaff <<
>       \new Staff {
>         \relative c' {
>           f8 e4 d8 d f e4
>         }
>       }
>       \new Staff {
>         \relative c' {
>           << {
>             \clef bass
>             % stems may overlap the other staff
>             \override Stem #'cross-staff = ##t
>             % extend the stems to reach other other staff
>             \override Stem #'length = #12
>             % do not print extra flags
>             \override Stem #'flag-style = #'no-flag
>             % prevent beaming as needed
>             a8 g4 f8 f bes\noBeam g4
>           }
>           \\
>           {
>             f,2 bes4 c
>           } >>
>         }
>       }
>     >>

#### Selected Snippets

Indicating cross-staff chords with arpeggio bracket

An arpeggio bracket can indicate that notes on two different staves are to be played with the same hand. In order to do this, the `PianoStaff` must be set to accept cross-staff arpeggios and the arpeggios must be set to the bracket shape in the `PianoStaff` context.

(Debussy, Les collines d’Anacapri, m. 65)

>     \new PianoStaff <<
>       \set PianoStaff.connectArpeggios = ##t
>       \override PianoStaff.Arpeggio #'stencil = #ly:arpeggio::brew-chord-bracket
>       \new Staff {
>         \relative c' {
>           \key b \major
>           \time 6/8
>           b8-.(\arpeggio fis'-.\> cis-. e-. gis-. b-.)\!\fermata^\laissezVibrer
>           \bar "||"
>         }
>       }
>       \new Staff {
>         \relative c' {
>           \clef bass
>           \key b \major
>           <<
>             {
>               <a e cis>2.\arpeggio
>             }
>             \\
>             {
>               <a, e a,>2.
>             }
>           >>
>         }
>       }
>     >>

#### See also

Snippets: Keyboards.

Internals Reference: Stem.

### 2.2.2 Piano

This section discusses notation issues that relate most directly to the piano.

#### Piano pedals

Pianos generally have three pedals that alter the way sound is produced: sustain, sostenuto (sos.), and una corda (U.C.). Sustain pedals are also found on vibraphones and celestas.

>     c4\sustainOn d e g
>     <c, f a>1\sustainOff
>     c4\sostenutoOn e g c,
>     <bes d f>1\sostenutoOff
>     c4\unaCorda d e g
>     <d fis a>1\treCorde

There are three styles of pedal indications: text, bracket, and mixed. The sustain pedal and the una corda pedal use the text style by default while the sostenuto pedal uses mixed by default.

>     c4\sustainOn g c2\sustainOff
>     \set Staff.pedalSustainStyle = #'mixed
>     c4\sustainOn g c d
>     d\sustainOff\sustainOn g, c2\sustainOff
>     \set Staff.pedalSustainStyle = #'bracket
>     c4\sustainOn g c d
>     d\sustainOff\sustainOn g, c2
>     \bar "|."

The placement of the pedal commands matches the physical movement of the sustain pedal during piano performance. Pedalling to the final bar line is indicated by omitting the final pedal up command.

#### See also

Notation Reference: Ties.

Snippets: Keyboards.

Internals Reference: SustainPedal, SustainPedalLineSpanner, SustainEvent, SostenutoPedal, SostenutoPedalLineSpanner, SostenutoEvent, UnaCordaPedal, UnaCordaPedalLineSpanner, UnaCordaEvent, PianoPedalBracket, Piano_pedal_engraver.

### 2.2.3 Accordion

This section discusses notation that is unique to the accordion.

#### Discant symbols

Accordions are often built with more than one set of reeds that may be in unison with, an octave above, or an octave below the written pitch. Each accordion maker has different names for the shifts that select the various reed combinations, such as oboe, musette, or bandonium, so a system of symbols has come into use to simplify the performance instructions.

#### Selected Snippets

Accordion-discant symbols

Accordion discant-specific symbols are added using `\markup`. The vertical placement of the symbols can be tweaked by changing the `\raise` arguments.

>     discant = \markup {
>       \musicglyph #"accordion.accDiscant"
>     }
>     dot = \markup {
>       \musicglyph #"accordion.accDot"
>     }

>     \layout { ragged-right = ##t }

>     % 16 voets register
>     accBasson = ^\markup {
>       \combine
>       \discant
>       \raise #0.5 \dot
>     }

>     % een korig 8 en 16 voets register
>     accBandon = ^\markup {
>       \combine
>         \discant
>         \combine
>           \raise #0.5 \dot
>           \raise #1.5 \dot
>     }

>     accVCello = ^\markup {
>       \combine
>         \discant
>         \combine
>           \raise #0.5 \dot
>           \combine
>             \raise #1.5 \dot
>             \translate #'(1 . 0) \raise #1.5 \dot
>     }

>     % 4-8-16 voets register
>     accHarmon = ^\markup {
>       \combine
>         \discant
>         \combine
>           \raise #0.5 \dot
>           \combine
>             \raise #1.5 \dot
>             \raise #2.5 \dot
>     }

>     accTrombon = ^\markup {
>       \combine
>         \discant
>         \combine
>           \raise #0.5 \dot
>           \combine
>             \raise #1.5 \dot
>             \combine
>               \translate #'(1 . 0) \raise #1.5 \dot
>               \translate #'(-1 . 0) \raise #1.5 \dot
>     }

>     % eenkorig 4 en 16 voets register
>     accOrgan = ^\markup {
>       \combine
>         \discant
>         \combine
>           \raise #0.5 \dot
>           \raise #2.5 \dot
>     }

>     accMaster = ^\markup {
>       \combine
>         \discant
>         \combine
>           \raise #0.5 \dot
>           \combine
>             \raise #1.5 \dot
>             \combine
>               \translate #'(1 . 0) \raise #1.5 \dot
>               \combine
>                 \translate #'(-1 . 0) \raise #1.5 \dot
>                 \raise #2.5 \dot
>     }

>     accAccord = ^\markup {
>       \combine
>         \discant
>         \combine
>           \raise #1.5 \dot
>           \combine
>             \translate #'(1 . 0) \raise #1.5 \dot
>             \combine
>               \translate #'(-1 . 0) \raise #1.5 \dot
>               \raise #2.5 \dot
>     }

>     accMusette = ^\markup {
>       \combine
>         \discant
>         \combine
>           \raise #1.5 \dot
>           \combine
>             \translate #'(1 . 0) \raise #1.5 \dot
>             \translate #'(-1 . 0) \raise #1.5 \dot
>     }

>     accCeleste = ^\markup {
>       \combine
>         \discant
>         \combine
>           \raise #1.5 \dot
>           \translate #'(-1 . 0) \raise #1.5 \dot
>     }

>     accOboe = ^\markup {
>       \combine
>         \discant
>         \combine
>           \raise #1.5 \dot
>           \raise #2.5 \dot
>     }

>     accClarin = ^\markup {
>       \combine
>         \discant
>         \raise #1.5 \dot
>     }

>     accPiccolo = ^\markup {
>         \combine
>            \discant
>            \raise #2.5 \dot
>     }

>     accViolin = ^\markup {
>       \combine
>         \discant
>         \combine
>           \raise #1.5 \dot
>           \combine
>             \translate #'(1 . 0) \raise #1.5 \dot
>             \raise #2.5 \dot
>     }

>     \relative c'' {
>       c4 d\accBasson e f
>       c4 d\accBandon e f
>       c4 d\accVCello e f
>       c4 d\accHarmon e f
>       c4 d\accTrombon e f
>       \break
>       c4 d\accOrgan e f
>       c4 d\accMaster e f
>       c4 d\accAccord e f
>       c4 d\accMusette e f
>       c4 d\accCeleste e f
>       \break
>       c4 d\accOboe e f
>       c4 d\accClarin e f
>       c4 d\accPiccolo e f
>       c4 d\accViolin e f
>     }

#### See also

Snippets: Keyboards.

### 2.2.4 Harp

This section discusses notation issues that are unique to the harp.

#### References for harps

Some common characteristics of harp music are covered elsewhere:

- The glissando is the most characterisic harp technique, Glissando.
- A bisbigliando is written as a tremelo Tremolo repeats
- Natural harmonics are covered under Harmonics.
- For directional arpeggios and non-arpeggios, see Arpeggio.

#### See also

Notation Reference: Tremolo repeats Glissando Arpeggio Harmonics

#### Harp pedals

Harps have seven strings per octave that may be sounded at the natural, flattened, or sharpened pitch. In lever harps, each string is adjusted individually, but in pedal harps every string with the same pitch name is controlled by a single pedal. From the player’s left to right, the pedals are D, C, and B on the left and E, F, G, and A on the right. The position of the pedals may be indicated with text marks:

>     \textLengthOn
>     cis1_\markup \concat \vcenter { [D \flat C \sharp B|E \sharp F \sharp G A \flat] }
>     c!1_\markup \concat \vcenter {[ C \natural ]}

or pedal diagrams:

>     \textLengthOn
>     cis1_\markup { \harp-pedal #"^v-|vv-^" }
>     c!1_\markup { \harp-pedal #"^o--|vv-^" }

The `\harp-pedal` command accepts a string of characters, where `^` is the highest pedal position (flattened pitch), `-` is the middle pedal postion (natural pitch), `v` is the lowest pedal position (sharpened pitch), and `|` is the divider. A prefixed `o` will circle the following pedal symbol.

#### See also

Notation Reference: Text scripts Instrument Specific Markup

## 2.3 Unfretted string instruments

This section provides information and references which are helpful when writing for unfretted string instruments, principally orchestral strings.

### 2.3.1 Common notation for unfretted strings

There is little specialist notation for unfretted string instruments. The music is notated on a single staff, and usually only a single voice is required. Two voices might be required for some double-stopped or divisi passages.

#### References for unfretted strings

Most of the notation which is useful for orchestral strings and other bowed instruments is covered elsewhere:

- Textual indications such as “pizz.” and “arco” are added as simple text – see Text scripts.
- Fingerings, including the thumb indication, are described in Fingering instructions.
- Double stopping is normally indicated by writing a chord, see Chorded notes. Directives for playing chords may be added, see Arpeggio.
- A template for a string quartet can be found in String quartet. Others are shown in the snippets.

#### See also

Learning Manual: String quartet.

Notation Reference: Text scripts, Fingering instructions, Chorded notes, Arpeggio.

Snippets: Unfretted strings.

#### Bowing indications

Bowing indications are created as articulations, which are described in Articulations and ornamentations.

The bowing commands, `\upbow` and `\downbow`, are used with slurs as follows:

>     c4(\downbow d) e(\upbow f)

and the following example shows three ways in which an open A string on a violin might be indicated:

>     a4 \open
>     a^\markup { \teeny "II" }
>     a2^\markup { \small "sul A" }

#### Predefined commands

`\downbow`, `\upbow`, `\open`.

#### See also

Notation Reference: Articulations and ornamentations, Slurs.

#### Harmonics

Natural harmonics

Natural harmonics can be notated in several ways. A diamond-shaped note head generally means to touch the string where you would stop the note if it were not a diamond.

Note: Harmonics must be defined inside a chord construct even if there is only a single note.

Dotted harmonics indicated with `\harmonic` do not show the dots. The context property `harmonicDots` should be set if dots are required.

>     <d\harmonic>4 <e\harmonic>2.
>     \set harmonicDots = ##t
>     <d\harmonic>4 <e\harmonic>2.

Alternatively a normal note head is shown at the pitch to be sounded together with a small circle to indicate it should be played as a harmonic:

>     d2^\flageolet d_\flageolet

A smaller circle may be created, see the snippet list in References for unfretted strings.

Artificial harmonics

Artificial harmonics are notated with two notes, one with a normal note head indicating the stopped position and one with an open diamond note head to indicate the harmonic position.

>     <e a\harmonic>2  <c g'\harmonic>

#### See also

Music Glossary: harmonics.

Notation Reference: Special note heads, References for unfretted strings.

#### Snap (Bartók) pizzicato

#### Selected Snippets

Snap-pizzicato markup ("Bartok pizzicato")

A snap-pizzicato (also known as "Bartok pizzicato") is a "strong pizzicato where the string is plucked vertically by snapping and rebounds off the fingerboard of the instrument" (Wikipedia). It is denoted by a cicle with a vertical line going from the center upwards outside the circle. While Lilypond does not have a pre-defined command to created this markup, it is easy to create a definition and place it directly into the lilypond file.

>     #(define-markup-command (snappizz layout props) ()
>       (interpret-markup layout props
>         (markup #:stencil
>           (ly:stencil-translate-axis
>             (ly:stencil-add
>               (make-circle-stencil 0.7 0.1 #f)
>               (ly:make-stencil
>                 (list 'draw-line 0.1 0 0.1 0 1)
>                 '(-0.1 . 0.1) '(0.1 . 1)))
>             0.7 X))))

>     snapPizzicato = \markup \snappizz

>     % now it can be used as \snappizzicato after the note/chord
>     % Note that a direction (-, ^ or _) is required.
>     \relative c' {
>       c4^\snapPizzicato
>       % This does NOT work:
>       %<c e g>\snapPizzicato
>       <c' e g>-\snapPizzicato
>       <c' e g>^\snapPizzicato
>       <c, e g>_\snapPizzicato
>     }

## 2.4 Fretted string instruments

This section discusses several aspects of music notation that are unique to fretted string instruments.

### 2.4.1 Common notation for fretted strings

This section discusses common notation that is unique to fretted string instruments.

#### References for fretted strings

Music for fretted string instruments is normally notated on a single staff, either in traditional music notation or in tablature. Sometimes the two types are combined, and it is especially common in popular music to use chord diagrams above a staff of traditional notation. The guitar and the banjo are transposing instruments, sounding an octave lower than written. Scores for these instruments should use the `"treble_8"` clef. Some other elements pertinent to fretted string instruments are covered elsewhere:

- Fingerings are indicated as shown in Fingering instructions.
- Instructions for Laissez vibrer ties as well as ties on arpeggios and tremolos can be found in Ties.
- Instructions for handling multiple voices can be found in Collision resolution.
- Instructions for indicating harmonics can be found in Harmonics.

#### See also

Notation Reference: Fingering instructions, Ties, Collision resolution, Instrument names, Writing music in parallel, Arpeggio, List of articulations, Clef.

#### String number indications

The string on which a note should be played may be indicated by appending `\number` to a note inside a chord construct `<>`.

Note: String numbers must be defined inside a chord construct even if there is only a single note.

>     \clef "treble_8"
>     <c\5>4 <e\4> <g\3>2
>     <c,\5 e\4 g\3>1

When fingerings and string indications are used together, their placement is controlled by the order in which the two items appear in the code:

>     \clef "treble_8"
>     <g\3-0>2
>     <g-0\3>

#### Selected Snippets

Controlling the placement of chord fingerings

The placement of fingering numbers can be controlled precisely.

>     \relative c' {
>       \set fingeringOrientations = #'(left)
>       <c-1 e-3 a-5>4
>       \set fingeringOrientations = #'(down)
>       <c-1 e-3 a-5>4
>       \set fingeringOrientations = #'(down right up)
>       <c-1 e-3 a-5>4
>       \set fingeringOrientations = #'(up)
>       <c-1 e-3 a-5>4
>       \set fingeringOrientations = #'(left)
>       <c-1>2
>       \set fingeringOrientations = #'(down)
>       <e-3>2
>     }

Allowing fingerings to be printed inside the staff

By default, vertically oriented fingerings are positioned outside the staff. However, this behavior can be canceled.

>     \relative c' {
>       <c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5>2
>       \once \override Fingering #'staff-padding = #'()
>       <c-1 e-2 g-3 b-5>2
>     }

#### See also

Notation Reference: Fingering instructions.

Snippets: Fretted strings.

Internals Reference: StringNumber, Fingering.

#### Default tablatures

Tablature notation is used for notating music for plucked string instruments. Pitches are not denoted with note heads, but by numbers indicating on which string and fret a note must be played. LilyPond offers limited support for tablature.

The string number associated with a note is given as a backslash followed by a number. By default, string 1 is the highest, and the tuning defaults to the standard guitar tuning (with 6 strings). The notes are printed as tablature, by using `TabStaff` and `TabVoice` contexts

>     \new TabStaff {
>       a,4\5 c'\2 a\3 e'\1
>       e\4 c'\2 a\3 e'\1
>     }

When no string is specified for a note, the note is assigned to the highest string that can generate the note with a fret number greater than or equal to the value of `minimumFret`. The default value for `minimumFret` is 0.

>     \new StaffGroup <<
>        \new Staff \relative c {
>          \clef "treble_8"
>          c16 d e f g4
>          c,16 d e f g4
>        }
>        \new TabStaff \relative c {
>          c16 d e f g4
>          \set TabStaff.minimumFret = #5
>          c,16 d e f g4
>        }
>     >>

Harmonic indications and slides can be added to tablature notation.

>     \new TabStaff {
>       \new TabVoice {
>         <c g'\harmonic> d\2\glissando e\2
>       }
>     }

#### Selected Snippets

Stem and beam behavior in tablature

The direction of stems is controlled the same way in tablature as in traditional notation. Beams can be made horizontal, as shown in this example.

>     \new TabStaff {
>       \relative c {
>         g16 b d g b d g b
>         \stemDown
>         \override Beam #'damping = #+inf.0
>         g,,16 b d g b d g b
>       }
>     }

Polyphony in tablature

Polyphony is created the same way in a `TabStaff` as in a regular staff.

>     upper = \relative c' {
>       \time 12/8
>       \key e \minor
>       \voiceOne
>       r4. r8 e, fis g16 b g e e' b c b a g fis e
>     }

>     lower = \relative c {
>       \key e \minor
>       \voiceTwo
>       r16 e d c b a g4 fis8 e fis g a b c
>     }

>     \score {
>       <<
>         \new StaffGroup = "tab with traditional" <<
>           \new Staff = "guitar traditional" <<
>             \clef "treble_8"
>             \context Voice = "upper" \upper
>             \context Voice = "lower" \lower
>           >>
>           \new TabStaff = "guitar tab" <<
>             \context TabVoice = "upper" \upper
>             \context TabVoice = "lower" \lower
>           >>
>         >>
>       >>
>     }

#### See also

Notation Reference: Stems.

Snippets: Fretted strings.

Internals Reference: TabNoteHead, TabStaff, TabVoice, Beam.

#### Known issues and warnings

Chords are not handled in a special way, and hence the automatic string selector may easily select the same string for two notes in a chord.

In order to handle `\partcombine`, a `TabStaff` must use specially-created voices:

>     melodia = \partcombine { e4 g g g }{ e4 e e e }
>     <<
>       \new TabStaff <<
>         \new TabVoice = "one" s1
>         \new TabVoice = "two" s1
>         \new TabVoice = "shared" s1
>         \new TabVoice = "solo" s1
>         { \melodia }
>       >>
>     >>

Guitar special effects are limited to harmonics and slides.

#### Custom tablatures

LilyPond tabulature automatically calculates the fret for a note based on the string to which the note is assigned. In order to do this, the tuning of the strings must be specified. The tuning of the strings is given in the `StringTunings` property.

LilyPond comes with predefined string tunings for banjo, mandolin, guitar and bass guitar. Lilypond automatically sets the correct transposition for predefined tunings. The following example is for bass guitar, which sounds an octave lower than written.

>     <<
>       \new Staff {
>         \clef "bass_8"
>         \relative c, {
>           c4 d e f
>         }
>       }
>       \new TabStaff {
>         \set TabStaff.stringTunings = #bass-tuning
>         \relative c, {
>           c4 d e f
>         }
>       }
>     >>

The default string tuning is `guitar-tuning`, which is the standard EADGBE tuning. Some other predefined tunings are `guitar-open-g-tuning`, `mandolin-tuning` and `banjo-open-g-tuning`. The predefined string tunings are found in `scm/output-lib.scm`.

A string tuning is a Scheme list of string pitches, one for each string, ordered by string number from 1 to N, where string 1 is at the top of the tablature staff and string N is at the bottom. This ordinarily results in ordering from highest pitch to lowest pitch, but some instruments (e.g. ukulele) do not have strings ordered by pitch.

A string pitch in a string tuning list is the pitch difference of the open string from middle C measured in semitones. The string pitch must be an integer. Lilypond calculates the actual pitch of the string by adding the string tuning pitch to the actual pitch for middle C.

LilyPond automatically calculates the number of strings in the `TabStaff` as the number of elements in `stringTunings`.

Any desired string tuning can be created. For example, we can define a string tuning for a four-string instrument with pitches of `a''`, `d''`, `g'`, and `c'`:

>     mynotes = {
>         c'4 e' g' c'' |
>         e'' g'' b'' c'''
>     }

>     <<
>       \new Staff {
>         \clef treble
>         \mynotes
>       }
>       \new TabStaff {
>         \set TabStaff.stringTunings = #'(21 14 7 0)
>         \mynotes
>       }
>     >>

#### See also

Installed Files: ‘`scm/output-lib.scm`’.

Snippets: Fretted strings.

Internals Reference: Tab_note_heads_engraver.

#### Fret diagram markups

Fret diagrams can be added to music as a markup to the desired note. The markup contains information about the desired fret diagram. There are three different fret-diagram markup interfaces: standard, terse, and verbose. The three interfaces produce equivalent markups, but have varying amounts of information in the markup string. Details about the markup interfaces are found at Text markup commands.

The standard fret diagram markup string indicates the string number and the fret number for each dot to be placed on the string. In addition, open and unplayed (muted) strings can be indicated.

>     <<
>       \context ChordNames {
>          \chordmode {
>            c1 d:m
>          }
>       }
>       \context Staff {
>         \clef "treble_8"
>         < c e g c' e' > 1 ^\markup
>           \fret-diagram #"6-x;5-3;4-2;3-o;2-1;1-o;"
>         < d a d' f'> ^\markup
>           \fret-diagram #"6-x;5-x;4-o;3-2;2-3;1-1;"
>       }
>     >>

Barre indications can be added to the diagram from the fret-diagram markup string.

>     <<
>       \context ChordNames {
>          \chordmode {
>            f1 g
>          }
>       }
>       \context Staff {
>         \clef "treble_8"
>         < f, c f a c' f'>1 ^\markup
>           \fret-diagram #"c:6-1-1;6-1;5-3;4-3;3-2;2-1;1-1;"
>         < g, d g b d' g'> ^\markup
>           \fret-diagram #"c:6-1-3;6-3;5-5;4-5;3-4;2-3;1-3;"
>       }
>     >>

The size of the fret diagram, and the number of frets in the diagram can be changed in the fret-diagram markup string.

>     <<
>       \context ChordNames {
>          \chordmode {
>            f1 g
>          }
>       }
>       \context Staff {
>         \clef "treble_8"
>         < f, c f a c' f'>1 ^\markup
>           \fret-diagram #"s:1.5;c:6-1-1;6-1;5-3;4-3;3-2;2-1;1-1;"
>         < g, b, d g b g'> ^\markup
>           \fret-diagram #"h:6;6-3;5-2;4-o;3-o;2-o;1-3;"
>       }
>     >>

The number of strings in a fret diagram can be changed to accomodate different instruments such as banjos and ukeleles with the fret-diagram markup string.

>     <<
>       \context ChordNames {
>          \chordmode {
>            a1
>          }
>       }
>       \context Staff {
>             %% A chord for ukelele
>         a'1 ^\markup \fret-diagram #"w:4;4-2-2;3-1-1;2-o;1-o;"
>       }
>     >>

Fingering indications can be added, and the location of fingering labels can be controlled by the fret-diagram markup string.

>     <<
>       \context ChordNames {
>          \chordmode {
>            c1 d:m
>          }
>       }
>       \context Staff {
>         \clef "treble_8"
>         < c e g c' e' > 1 ^\markup
>           \fret-diagram #"f:1;6-x;5-3-3;4-2-2;3-o;2-1-1;1-o;"
>         < d a d' f'> ^\markup
>           \fret-diagram #"f:2;6-x;5-x;4-o;3-2-2;2-3-3;1-1-1;"
>       }
>     >>

Dot radius and dot position can be controlled with the fret-diagram markup string.

>     <<
>       \context ChordNames {
>          \chordmode {
>            c1 d:m
>          }
>       }
>       \context Staff {
>         \clef "treble_8"
>         < c e g c' e' > 1 ^\markup
>           \fret-diagram #"d:0.35;6-x;5-3;4-2;3-o;2-1;1-o;"
>         < d a d' f'> ^\markup
>           \fret-diagram #"p:0.2;6-x;5-x;4-o;3-2;2-3;1-1;"
>       }
>     >>

The fret-diagram-terse markup string omits string numbers; the string number is implied by the presence of semicolons. There is one semicolon for each string in the diagram. The first semicolon corresponds to the highest string number and the last semicolon corresponds to the first string. Mute strings, open strings, and fret numbers can be indicated.

>     <<
>       \context ChordNames {
>          \chordmode {
>            c1 d:m
>          }
>       }
>       \context Staff {
>         \clef "treble_8"
>         < c e g c' e' > 1 ^\markup
>           \fret-diagram-terse #"x;3;2;o;1;o;"
>         < d a d' f'> ^\markup
>           \fret-diagram-terse #"x;x;o;2;3;1;"
>       }
>     >>

Barre indicators can be included in the fret-diagram-terse markup string.

>     <<
>       \context ChordNames {
>          \chordmode {
>            f1 g
>          }
>       }
>       \context Staff {
>         \clef "treble_8"
>         < f, c f a c' f'>1 ^\markup
>           \fret-diagram-terse #"1-(;3;3;2;1;1-);"
>         < g, d g b d' g'> ^\markup
>           \fret-diagram-terse #"3-(;5;5;4;3;3-);"
>       }
>     >>

Fingering indications can be included in the fret-diagram-terse markup string.

>     <<
>       \context ChordNames {
>          \chordmode {
>            c1 d:m
>          }
>       }
>       \context Staff {
>         \override Voice.TextScript
>           #'(fret-diagram-details finger-code) = #'below-string
>         \clef "treble_8"
>         < c e g c' e' > 1 ^\markup
>           \fret-diagram-terse #"x;3-3;2-2;o;1-1;o;"
>         < d a d' f'> ^\markup
>           \fret-diagram-terse #"x;x;o;2-2;3-3;1-1;"
>       }
>     >>

Other fret diagram properties must be adjusted using `\override` when using the fret-diagram-terse markup.

The fret-diagram-verbose markup string is in the format of a Scheme list. Each element of the list indicates an item to be placed on the fret diagram.

>     <<  \context ChordNames {
>          \chordmode {
>            c1 d:m
>          }
>       }
>       \context Staff {
>         \clef "treble_8"
>         < c e g c' e' > 1 ^\markup
>           \fret-diagram-verbose #'(
>             (mute 6)
>             (place-fret 5 3)
>             (place-fret 4 2)
>             (open 3)
>             (place-fret 2 1)
>             (open 1)
>           )
>         < d a d' f'> ^\markup
>           \fret-diagram-verbose #'(
>             (mute 6)
>             (mute 5)
>             (open 4)
>             (place-fret 3 2)
>             (place-fret 2 3)
>             (place-fret 1 1)
>           )
>       }
>     >>

Fingering indications and barres can be included in a fret-diagram-verbose markup string. Unique to the fret-diagram-verbose interface is a capo indication that can be placed on the fret diagram. The capo indication is a thick bar that covers all strings. The fret with the capo will be the lowest fret in the fret diagram.

>     <<
>       \context ChordNames {
>          \chordmode {
>            f1 g c
>          }
>       }
>       \context Staff {
>         \clef "treble_8"
>         \override Voice.TextScript
>           #'(fret-diagram-details finger-code) = #'below-string

>         < f, c f a c' f'>1 ^\markup
>           \fret-diagram-verbose #'(
>             (place-fret 6 1)
>             (place-fret 5 3)
>             (place-fret 4 3)
>             (place-fret 3 2)
>             (place-fret 2 1)
>             (place-fret 1 1)
>             (barre 6 1 1)
>           )
>         < g, b, d g b g'> ^\markup
>           \fret-diagram-verbose #'(
>             (place-fret 6 3 2)
>             (place-fret 5 2 1)
>             (open 4)
>             (open 3)
>             (open 2)
>             (place-fret 1 3 3)
>           )
>         < c e g c' e'> ^\markup
>           \fret-diagram-verbose #'(
>             (capo 3)
>             (mute 6)
>             (place-fret 4 5 1)
>             (place-fret 3 5 2)
>             (place-fret 2 5 3)
>           )
>        }
>     >>

All other fret diagram properties must be adjusted using `\override` when using the fret-diagram-verbose markup.

The graphical layout of a fret diagram can be customized according to user preference through the properties of the `fret-diagram-interface`. Details are found at fret-diagram-interface. For a fret diagram markup, the interface properties belong to `Voice.TextScript`.

#### Selected Snippets

Customizing markup fret diagrams

Fret diagram properties can be set through `'fret-diagram-details`. For markup fret diagrams, overrides can be applied to the `Voice.TextScript` object or directly to the markup.

>     <<
>       \chords { c1 | c | c | d }

>       \new Voice = "mel" {
>         \textLengthOn
>         % Set global properties of fret diagram
>         \override TextScript #'size = #'1.2
>         \override TextScript
>           #'(fret-diagram-details finger-code) = #'in-dot
>         \override TextScript
>           #'(fret-diagram-details dot-color) = #'white

>         %% C major for guitar, no barre, using defaults
>            % terse style
>         c'1^\markup { \fret-diagram-terse #"x;3-3;2-2;o;1-1;o;" }

>         %% C major for guitar, barred on third fret
>            % verbose style
>            % size 1.0
>            % roman fret label, finger labels below string, straight barre
>         c'1^\markup {
>           % standard size
>           \override #'(size . 1.0) {
>             \override #'(fret-diagram-details . (
>                          (number-type . roman-lower)
>                          (finger-code . in-dot)
>                          (barre-type . straight))) {
>               \fret-diagram-verbose #'((mute 6)
>                                        (place-fret 5 3 1)
>                                        (place-fret 4 5 2)
>                                        (place-fret 3 5 3)
>                                        (place-fret 2 5 4)
>                                        (place-fret 1 3 1)
>                                        (barre 5 1 3))
>             }
>           }
>         }

>         %% C major for guitar, barred on third fret
>            % verbose style
>            % landscape orientation, arabic numbers, M for mute string
>            % no barre, fret label down or left, small mute label font
>         c'1^\markup {
>           \override #'(fret-diagram-details . (
>                        (finger-code . below-string)
>                        (number-type . arabic)
>                        (label-dir . -1)
>                        (mute-string . "M")
>                        (orientation . landscape)
>                        (barre-type . none)
>                        (xo-font-magnification . 0.4)
>                        (xo-padding . 0.3))) {
>             \fret-diagram-verbose #'((mute 6)
>                                      (place-fret 5 3 1)
>                                      (place-fret 4 5 2)
>                                      (place-fret 3 5 3)
>                                      (place-fret 2 5 4)
>                                      (place-fret 1 3 1)
>                                      (barre 5 1 3))
>           }
>         }

>         %% simple D chord
>            % terse style
>            % larger dots, centered dots, fewer frets
>            % label below string
>         d'1^\markup {
>           \override #'(fret-diagram-details . (
>                        (finger-code . below-string)
>                        (dot-radius . 0.35)
>                        (dot-position . 0.5)
>                        (fret-count . 3))) {
>             \fret-diagram-terse #"x;x;o;2-1;3-2;2-3;"
>           }
>         }
>       }
>     >>

#### See also

Notation Reference: Text markup commands.

Snippets: Fretted strings.

Internals Reference: fret-diagram-interface.

#### Predefined fret diagrams

Fret diagrams can be displayed using the `FretBoards` context. By default, the `FretBoards` context will display fret diagrams that are stored in a lookup table:

>     \include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly"
>     \context FretBoards {
>       \chordmode {
>         c1 d
>       }
>     }

The default predefined fret diagrams are contained in the file `predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly`. Fret diagrams are stored based on the pitches of a chord and the value of `stringTunings` that is currently in use. `predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly` contains predefined fret diagrams only for `guitar-tuning`. Predefined fret diagrams can be added for other instruments or other tunings by following the examples found in `predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly`.

Chord pitches can be entered either as simultaneous music or using chord mode (see Chord mode overview).

>     \include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly"
>     \context FretBoards {
>       \chordmode {c1}
>       <c' e' g'>1
>     }

It is common that both chord names and fret diagrams are displayed together. This is achieved by putting a `ChordNames` context in parallel with a `FretBoards` context and giving both contexts the same music.

>     \include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly"
>     mychords = \chordmode{
>       c1 f g
>     }

>     <<
>       \context ChordNames {
>         \mychords
>       }
>       \context FretBoards {
>         \mychords
>       }
>     >>

Predefined fret diagrams are transposable, as long as a diagram for the transposed chord is stored in the fret diagram table.

>     \include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly"
>     mychords = \chordmode{
>       c1 f g
>     }

>     mychordlist = {
>       \mychords
>       \transpose c e { \mychords}
>     }
>     <<
>       \context ChordNames {
>         \mychordlist
>       }
>       \context FretBoards {
>         \mychordlist
>       }
>     >>

The predefined fret diagram table contains seven chords (major, minor, augmented, diminished, dominant seventh, major seventh, minor seventh) for each of 17 keys. A complete list of the predefined fret diagrams is shown in Predefined fretboard diagrams. If there is no entry in the table for a chord, the FretBoards engraver will calculate a fret-diagram using the automatic fret diagram functionality described in Automatic fret diagrams.

>     \include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly"
>     mychords = \chordmode{
>       c1 c:9
>     }

>     <<
>       \context ChordNames {
>         \mychords
>       }
>       \context FretBoards {
>         \mychords
>       }
>     >>

Fret diagrams can be added to the fret diagram table. To add a diagram, you must specify the chord for the diagram, the tuning to be used, and a definition for the diagram. The diagram definition can be either a fret-diagram-terse definition string or a fret-diagram-verbose marking list.

>     \include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly"

>     \storePredefinedDiagram \chordmode {c:9}
>                             #guitar-tuning
>                             #"x;3-2;2-1;3-3;3-4;x;"

>     mychords = \chordmode{
>       c1 c:9
>     }

>     <<
>       \context ChordNames {
>         \mychords
>       }
>       \context FretBoards {
>         \mychords
>       }
>     >>

Different fret diagrams for the same chord name can be stored using different octaves of pitches. The different octave should be at least two octaves above or below the default octave, because the octaves above and below the default octave are used for transposing fretboards.

>     \include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly"

>     \storePredefinedDiagram \chordmode {c''}
>                             #guitar-tuning
>                             #(offset-fret 2 (chord-shape 'bes guitar-tuning))

>     mychords = \chordmode{
>       c1 c''
>     }

>     <<
>       \context ChordNames {
>         \mychords
>       }
>       \context FretBoards {
>         \mychords
>       }
>     >>

In addition to fret diagrams, LilyPond stores an internal list of chord shapes. The chord shapes are fret diagrams that can be shifted along the neck to different posistions to provide different chords. Chord shapes can be added to the internal list and then used to define predefined fret diagrams. Because they can be moved to various positions on the neck, chord shapes will normally not contain any open strings. Like fret diagrams, chord shapes can be entered as either fret-diagram-terse strings or fret-diagram-verbose marking lists.

>     \include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly"

>     % add a new chord shape

>     \addChordShape #'powerf #guitar-tuning #"1-1;3-3;3-4;x;x;x;"

>     % add some new chords based on the power chord shape

>     \storePredefinedDiagram \chordmode {f''}
>                             #guitar-tuning
>                             #(chord-shape 'powerf guitar-tuning)
>     \storePredefinedDiagram \chordmode {g''}
>                             #guitar-tuning
>                             #(offset-fret 2 (chord-shape 'powerf guitar-tuning))

>     mychords = \chordmode{
>       f1 f'' g g''
>     }

>     <<
>       \context ChordNames {
>         \mychords
>       }
>       \context FretBoards {
>         \mychords
>       }
>     >>

The graphical layout of a fret diagram can be customized according to user preference through the properties of the `fret-diagram-interface`. Details are found at fret-diagram-interface. For a predefined fret diagram, the interface properties belong to `FretBoards.FretBoard`.

#### Selected Snippets

Customizing fretboard fret diagrams

Fret diagram properties can be set through `'fret-diagram-details`. For FretBoard fret diagrams, overrides are applied to the `FretBoards.FretBoard` object. Like `Voice`, `FretBoards` is a bottom level context, therefore can be omitted in property overrides.

>     \include "predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly"
>     \storePredefinedDiagram \chordmode { c' }
>                             #guitar-tuning
>                             #"x;1-1-(;3-2;3-3;3-4;1-1-);"
>     <<
>       \new ChordNames {
>         \chordmode { c1 | c | c | d }
>       }
>       \new FretBoards {
>         % Set global properties of fret diagram
>         \override FretBoards.FretBoard #'size = #'1.2
>         \override FretBoard
>           #'(fret-diagram-details finger-code) = #'in-dot
>         \override FretBoard
>           #'(fret-diagram-details dot-color) = #'white
>         \chordmode {
>           c
>           \once \override FretBoard #'size = #'1.0
>           \once \override FretBoard
>             #'(fret-diagram-details barre-type) = #'straight
>           \once \override FretBoard
>             #'(fret-diagram-details dot-color) = #'black
>           \once \override FretBoard
>             #'(fret-diagram-details finger-code) = #'below-string
>           c'
>           \once \override FretBoard
>             #'(fret-diagram-details barre-type) = #'none
>           \once \override FretBoard
>             #'(fret-diagram-details number-type) = #'arabic
>           \once \override FretBoard
>             #'(fret-diagram-details orientation) = #'landscape
>           \once \override FretBoard
>             #'(fret-diagram-details mute-string) = #"M"
>           \once \override FretBoard
>             #'(fret-diagram-details label-dir) = #LEFT
>           \once \override FretBoard
>             #'(fret-diagram-details dot-color) = #'black
>           c'
>           \once \override FretBoard
>             #'(fret-diagram-details finger-code) = #'below-string
>           \once \override FretBoard
>             #'(fret-diagram-details dot-radius) = #0.35
>           \once \override FretBoard
>             #'(fret-diagram-details dot-position) = #0.5
>           \once \override FretBoard
>             #'(fret-diagram-details fret-count) = #3
>           d
>         }
>       }
>       \new Voice {
>         c'1 | c' | c' | d'
>       }
>     >>

Defining predefined fretboards for other instruments

Predefined fret diagrams can be added for new instruments in addition to the standards used for guitar. This file shows how this is done by defining a new string-tuning and a few predefined fretboards for the Venezuelan cuatro.

This file also shows how fingerings can be included in the chords used as reference points for the chord lookup, and displayed in the fret diagram and the `TabStaff`, but not the music.

These fretboards are not transposable because they contain string information. This is planned to be corrected in the future.

>     % add FretBoards for the Cuatro
>     %   Note: This section could be put into a separate file
>     %      predefined-cuatro-fretboards.ly
>     %      and \included into each of your compositions

>     cuatroTuning = #'(11 18 14 9)

>     dSix = { <a\4 b\1 d\3 fis\2> }
>     dMajor = { <a\4 d\1 d\3 fis \2> }
>     aMajSeven = { <a\4 cis\1 e\3 g\2> }
>     dMajSeven = { <a\4 c\1 d\3 fis\2> }
>     gMajor = { <b\4 b\1 d\3 g\2> }

>     \storePredefinedDiagram \dSix
>                             #cuatroTuning
>                             #"o;o;o;o;"
>     \storePredefinedDiagram \dMajor
>                             #cuatroTuning
>                             #"o;o;o;3-3;"
>     \storePredefinedDiagram \aMajSeven
>                             #cuatroTuning
>                             #"o;2-2;1-1;2-3;"
>     \storePredefinedDiagram \dMajSeven
>                             #cuatroTuning
>                             #"o;o;o;1-1;"
>     \storePredefinedDiagram \gMajor
>                             #cuatroTuning
>                             #"2-2;o;1-1;o;"

>     % end of potential include file /predefined-cuatro-fretboards.ly

>     #(set-global-staff-size 16)

>     primerosNames = \chordmode {
>       d:6 d a:maj7 d:maj7
>       g
>     }
>     primeros = {
>       \dSix \dMajor \aMajSeven \dMajSeven
>       \gMajor
>     }

>     \score {
>       <<
>         \new ChordNames {
>           \set chordChanges = ##t
>           \primerosNames
>         }

>         \new Staff {
>           \new Voice \with {
>             \remove "New_fingering_engraver"
>           }
>           \relative c'' {
>             \primeros
>           }
>         }

>         \new FretBoards {
>           \set stringTunings = #cuatroTuning
>           \override FretBoard
>             #'(fret-diagram-details string-count) = #'4
>           \override FretBoard
>             #'(fret-diagram-details finger-code) = #'in-dot
>           \primeros
>         }

>         \new TabStaff \relative c'' {
>           \set TabStaff.stringTunings = #cuatroTuning
>           \primeros
>         }

>       >>

>       \layout {
>         \context {
>           \Score
>           \override SpacingSpanner
>             #'base-shortest-duration = #(ly:make-moment 1 16)
>         }
>       }
>       \midi { }
>     }

#### See also

Notation Reference: Custom tablatures, Automatic fret diagrams, Chord mode overview, Predefined fretboard diagrams.

Installed Files: ‘`ly/predefined-guitar-fretboards.ly`’, ‘`ly/predefined-guitar-ninth-fretboards.ly`’.

Snippets: Fretted strings.

Internals Reference: fret-diagram-interface.

#### Automatic fret diagrams

Fret diagrams can be automatically created from entered notes using the `FretBoards` context. If no predefined diagram is available for the entered notes in the active `stringTunings`, this context calculates strings and frets that can be used to play the notes.

>     <<
>       \context ChordNames {
>          \chordmode {
>            f1 g
>          }
>       }
>       \context FretBoards {
>         < f, c f a c' f'>1
>         < g,\6 b, d g b g'>
>       }
>       \context Staff {
>         \clef "treble_8"
>         < f, c f a c' f'>1
>         < g, b, d g b' g'>
>       }
>     >>

As no predefined diagrams are loaded by default, automatic calculation of fret diagrams is the default behavior. Once default diagrams are loaded, automatic calculation can be enabled and disabled with predefined commands:

>     \storePredefinedDiagram <c e g c' e'>
>                             #guitar-tuning
>                             #"x;3-1-(;5-2;5-3;5-4;3-1-1);"
>     <<
>       \context ChordNames {
>          \chordmode {
>            c1 c c
>          }
>       }
>       \context FretBoards {
>         <c e g c' e'>1
>         \predefinedFretboardsOff
>         <c e g c' e'>
>         \predefinedFretboardsOn
>         <c e g c' e'>
>       }
>       \context Staff {
>         \clef "treble_8"
>         <c e g c' e'>1
>         <c e g c' e'>
>         <c e g c' e'>
>       }
>     >>

Sometimes the fretboard calculator will be unable to find an accceptable diagram. This can often be remedied by manually assigning a note to a string. In many cases, only one note need be manually placed on a string; the rest of the notes will then be placed appropriately by the `FretBoards` context.

Fingerings can be added to FretBoard fret diagrams.

>     <<
>       \context ChordNames {
>          \chordmode {
>            c1 d:m
>          }
>       }
>       \context FretBoards {
>         < c-3 e-2 g c'-1 e' > 1
>         < d a-2 d'-3 f'-1>
>       }
>       \context Staff {
>         \clef "treble_8"
>         < c e g c' e' > 1
>         < d a d' f'>
>       }
>     >>

The minimum fret to be used in calculating strings and frets for the FretBoard context can be set with the `minimumFret` property.

>     <<
>       \context ChordNames {
>          \chordmode {
>            d1:m d:m
>          }
>       }
>       \context FretBoards {
>         < d a d' f'>
>         \set FretBoards.minimumFret = #5
>         < d a d' f'>
>       }
>       \context Staff {
>         \clef "treble_8"
>         < d a d' f'>
>         < d a d' f'>
>       }
>     >>

The strings and frets for the `FretBoards` context depend on the `stringTunings` property, which has the same meaning as in the TabStaff context. See Custom tablatures for information on the `stringTunings` property.

The graphical layout of a fret diagram can be customized according to user preference through the properties of the `fret-diagram-interface`. Details are found at fret-diagram-interface. For a `FretBoards` fret diagram, the interface properties belong to `FretBoards.FretBoard`.

#### Predefined commands

`\predefinedFretboardsOff`, `\predefinedFretboardsOn`.

#### See also

Notation Reference: Custom tablatures.

Snippets: Fretted strings.

Internals Reference: fret-diagram-interface.

#### Right-hand fingerings

Right-hand fingerings p-i-m-a must be entered within a chord construct `<>` for them to be printed in the score, even when applied to a single note.

Note: There must be a hyphen after the note and a space before the closing `>`.

>     \clef "treble_8"
>     <c-\rightHandFinger #1 >4
>     <e-\rightHandFinger #2 >
>     <g-\rightHandFinger #3 >
>     <c-\rightHandFinger #4 >
>     <c,-\rightHandFinger #1 e-\rightHandFinger #2
>       g-\rightHandFinger #3 c-\rightHandFinger #4 >1

For convenience, you can abbreviate `\rightHandFinger` to something short, for example `RH`,

>     #(define RH rightHandFinger)

#### Selected Snippets

Placement of right-hand fingerings

It is possible to exercise greater control over the placement of right-hand fingerings by setting a specific property, as demonstrated in the following example.

>     #(define RH rightHandFinger)

>     \relative c {
>       \clef "treble_8"

>       \set strokeFingerOrientations = #'(up down)
>       <c-\RH #1 e-\RH #2 g-\RH #3 c-\RH #4 >4

>       \set strokeFingerOrientations = #'(up right down)
>       <c-\RH #1 e-\RH #2 g-\RH #3 c-\RH #4 >4

>       \set strokeFingerOrientations = #'(left)
>       <c-\RH #1 e-\RH #2 g-\RH #3 c-\RH #4 >2
>     }

Fingerings, string indications, and right-hand fingerings

This example combines left-hand fingering, string indications, and right-hand fingering.

>     #(define RH rightHandFinger)

>     \relative c {
>       \clef "treble_8"
>       <c-3\5-\RH #1 >4
>       <e-2\4-\RH #2 >4
>       <g-0\3-\RH #3 >4
>       <c-1\2-\RH #4 >4
>     }

#### See also

Snippets: Fretted strings.

Internals Reference: StrokeFinger.

### 2.4.2 Guitar

Most of the notational issues associated with guitar music are covered sufficiently in the general fretted strings section, but there are a few more worth covering here. Occasionally users want to create songbook-type documents having only lyrics with chord indications above them. Since Lilypond is a music typesetter, it is not recommended for documents that have no music notation in them. A better alternative is a word processor, text editor, or, for experienced users, a typesetter like GuitarTeX.

#### Indicating position and barring

This example demonstrates how to include guitar position and barring indications.

>     \clef "treble_8"
>     b16 d g b e
>     \textSpannerDown
>     \override TextSpanner #'(bound-details left text) = #"XII "
>       g16\startTextSpan
>       b16 e g e b g\stopTextSpan
>     e16 b g d

#### See also

Notation Reference: Text spanners.

Snippets: Fretted strings, Expressive marks.

#### Indicating harmonics and dampened notes

Special note heads can be used to indicate dampened notes or harmonics. Harmonics are normally further explained with a text markup.

>     \relative c' {
>       \clef "treble_8"
>       \override Staff.NoteHead #'style = #'cross
>       g8 a b c b4
>       \override Staff.NoteHead #'style = #'harmonic-mixed
>       d^\markup { \italic { \fontsize #-2 { "harm. 12" }}} <g b>1
>     }

#### See also

Snippets: Fretted strings.

Notation Reference: Special note heads, Note head styles.

### 2.4.3 Banjo

#### Banjo tablatures

LilyPond has basic support for the five-string banjo. When making tablatures for five-string banjo, use the banjo tablature format function to get correct fret numbers for the fifth string:

>     \new TabStaff <<
>       \set TabStaff.tablatureFormat = #fret-number-tablature-format-banjo
>       \set TabStaff.stringTunings = #banjo-open-g-tuning
>       {
>         \stemDown
>         g8 d' g'\5 a b g e d' |
>         g4 d''8\5 b' a'\2 g'\5 e'\2 d' |
>         g4
>       }
>     >>

A number of common tunings for banjo are predefined in LilyPond: `banjo-c-tuning` (gCGBD), `banjo-modal-tuning` (gDGCD), `banjo-open-d-tuning` (aDF#AD) and `banjo-open-dm-tuning` (aDFAD).

These tunings may be converted to four-string banjo tunings using the `four-string-banjo` function:

>     \set TabStaff.stringTunings = #(four-string-banjo banjo-c-tuning)

#### See also

Snippets: Fretted strings.

The file ‘`scm/output-lib.scm`’ contains predefined banjo tunings.

## 2.5 Percussion

### 2.5.1 Common notation for percussion

Rhythmic music is primarily used for percussion and drum notation, but it can also be used to show the rhythms of melodies.

#### References for percussion

TODO add more.

- Some percussion may be notated on a rhythmic staff; this is discussed in Showing melody rhythms, and Instantiating new staves.
- MIDI output is discussed in a separate section; please see Percussion in MIDI.

#### See also

Notation Reference: Showing melody rhythms, Instantiating new staves. Percussion in MIDI.

Snippets: Percussion.

#### Basic percussion notation

Percussion notes may be entered in `\drummode` mode, which is similar to the standard mode for entering notes. The simplest way to enter percussion notes is to use the `\drums` command, which creates the correct context and entry mode for percussion:

>     \drums {
>       hihat4 hh bassdrum bd
>     }

This is shorthand for:

>     \new DrumStaff {
>       \drummode {
>         hihat4 hh bassdrum bd
>       }
>     }

Each piece of percussion has a full name and an abbreviated name, and both can be used in input files. The full list of percussion note names may be found in Percussion notes.

Note that the normal notation of pitches (such as `cis4`) in a `DrumStaff` context will cause an error message. Percussion clefs are added automatically to a `DrumStaff` contex, but other clefs may also be used.

There are a few issues concerning MIDI support for percussion instruments; for details please see Percussion in MIDI.

#### See also

Notation Reference: Percussion in MIDI, Percussion notes.

File: ‘`ly/drumpitch-init.ly`’

Snippets: Percussion.

#### Drum rolls

Drum rolls are indicated with three slashes across the stem. For quarter notes or longer the three slashes are shown explicitly, eighth notes are shown with two slashes (the beam being the third), and drum rolls shorter than eighths have one stem slash to supplement the beams. This is achieved with the tremolo notation, `:32`, as described in Tremolo repeats. Here is an example of some snare rolls:

>     \drums {
>       \time 2/4
>       sn16 sn8 sn16 sn8 sn8:32 ~
>       sn8 sn8 sn4:32 ~
>       sn4 sn8 sn16 sn16
>       sn4 r4
>     }

Sticking can be indicated by placing `^"R"` or `^"L"` after the note. The `staff-padding` property may be overridden to achieve a pleasing baseline.

>     \drums {
>       \repeat unfold 2 {
>         sn16 ^"L" sn^"R" sn^"L" sn^"L" sn^"R" sn^"L"  sn^"R" sn^"R"
>       }
>     }

#### See also

Snippets: Percussion.

#### Pitched percussion

Certain pitched percussion instruments (e.g. xylophone, vibraphone, and timpani) are written using normal staves. This is covered in other sections of the manual.

#### See also

Notation Reference: Percussion in MIDI.

Snippets: Percussion.

#### Percussion staves

A percussion part for more than one instrument typically uses a multiline staff where each position in the staff refers to one piece of percussion. To typeset the music, the notes must be interpreted in `DrumStaff` and `DrumVoice` context.

>     up = \drummode {
>       crashcymbal4 hihat8 halfopenhihat hh hh hh openhihat
>     }
>     down = \drummode {
>       bassdrum4 snare8 bd r bd sn4
>     }
>     \new DrumStaff <<
>       \new DrumVoice { \voiceOne \up }
>       \new DrumVoice { \voiceTwo \down }
>     >>

The above example shows verbose polyphonic notation. The short polyphonic notation, described in I'm hearing Voices, can also be used if the voices are instantiated by hand first. For example,

>     \new DrumStaff <<
>       \new DrumVoice = "1" { s1*2 }
>       \new DrumVoice = "2" { s1*2 }
>       \drummode {
>         bd4 sn4 bd4 sn4
>         << {
>           \repeat unfold 16 hh16
>         } \\ {
>           bd4 sn4 bd4 sn4
>         } >>
>       }
>     >>

There are also other layout possibilities. To use these, set the property `drumStyleTable` in context `DrumVoice`. The following variables have been predefined:

`drums-style`

  This is the default. It typesets a typical drum kit on a five-line staff:

  The drum scheme supports six different toms. When there are fewer toms, simply select the toms that produce the desired result. For example, to get toms on the three middle lines you use `tommh`, `tomml`, and `tomfh`.

`timbales-style`

  This typesets timbales on a two line staff:

`congas-style`

  This typesets congas on a two line staff:

`bongos-style`

  This typesets bongos on a two line staff:

`percussion-style`

  To typeset all kinds of simple percussion on one line staves:

#### Custom percussion staves

If you do not like any of the predefined lists you can define your own list at the top of your file.

>     #(define mydrums '(
>              (bassdrum     default   #f         -1)
>              (snare        default   #f         0)
>              (hihat        cross     #f         1)
>              (pedalhihat   xcircle   "stopped"  2)
>              (lowtom       diamond   #f         3)))
>     up = \drummode { hh8 hh hh hh hhp4 hhp }
>     down = \drummode { bd4 sn bd toml8 toml }

>     \new DrumStaff <<
>       \set DrumStaff.drumStyleTable = #(alist->hash-table mydrums)
>       \new DrumVoice { \voiceOne \up }
>       \new DrumVoice { \voiceTwo \down }
>     >>

#### Selected Snippets

FIXME: MOVE ALL THESE TO LSR! -gp

Here are some examples:

Two Woodblocks, entered with wbh (high woodblock) and wbl (low woodblock)

>     % These lines define the position of the woodblocks in the stave;
>     % if you like, you can change it or you can use special note heads
>     % for the woodblocks.
>     #(define mydrums '((hiwoodblock default #t  3)
>                        (lowoodblock default #t -2)))

>     woodstaff = {
>       % This defines a staff with only two lines.
>       % It also defines the positions of the two lines.
>       \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-positions = #'(-2 3)

>       % This is neccessary; if not entered, the barline would be too short!
>       \override Staff.BarLine #'bar-size = #3
>     }

>     \new DrumStaff {
>       \set DrumStaff.drumStyleTable = #(alist->hash-table mydrums)

>       % with this you load your new drum style table
>       \woodstaff

>       \drummode {
>         \time 2/4
>         wbl8 wbl16 wbl wbh8-> wbl |
>         wbl8 wbl16 wbh-> ~ wbh wbl16 r8 |
>       }
>     }

Note that in this special case the length of the barline must altered with `\override Staff.BarLine #'bar-size #number`. Otherwise it would be too short. And you have also to define the positions of the two stafflines. For more information about these delicate things have a look at Staff symbol.

A tambourine, entered with ‘tamb’:

>     #(define mydrums '((tambourine default #t 0)))

>     tambustaff = {
>       \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-positions = #'( 0 )
>       \override Staff.BarLine #'bar-size = #3
>       \set DrumStaff.instrumentName = #"Tambourine"
>     }

>     \new DrumStaff {
>       \tambustaff
>       \set DrumStaff.drumStyleTable = #(alist->hash-table mydrums)

>       \drummode {
>         \time 6/8
>         tamb8. tamb16 tamb8 tamb tamb tamb |
>         tamb4. tamb8 tamb tamb |
>         % the trick with the scaled duration and the shorter rest
>         % is neccessary for the correct ending of the trill-span!
>         tamb2.*5/6 \startTrillSpan s8 \stopTrillSpan |
>       }
>     }

Music for Tam-Tam (entered with ‘tt’):

>     #(define mydrums '((tamtam default #t 0)))

>     tamtamstaff = {
>       \override Staff.StaffSymbol #'line-positions = #'( 0 )
>       \override Staff.BarLine #'bar-size = #3
>       \set DrumStaff.instrumentName = #"Tamtam"
>     }

>     \new DrumStaff {
>       \tamtamstaff
>       \set DrumStaff.drumStyleTable = #(alist->hash-table mydrums)

>       \drummode {
>         tt 1 \pp \laissezVibrer
>       }
>     }

Two different bells, entered with ‘cb’ (cowbell) and ‘rb’ (ridebell)

>     #(define mydrums '((ridebell default #t  3)
>                        (cowbell  default #t -2)))

>     bellstaff = {
>       \override DrumStaff.StaffSymbol #'line-positions = #'(-2 3)
>       \set DrumStaff.drumStyleTable = #(alist->hash-table mydrums)
>       \override Staff.BarLine #'bar-size = #3
>       \set DrumStaff.instrumentName = #"Different Bells"
>     }

>     \new DrumStaff {
>       \bellstaff
>       \drummode {
>         \time 2/4
>         rb8 rb cb cb16 rb-> ~ |
>         rb16 rb8 rb16 cb8 cb |
>       }
>     }

Here an short example by maestro Stravinsky (from ‘L’histoire du Soldat’)

>     #(define mydrums '((bassdrum   default #t  4)
>                        (snare      default #t -4)
>                        (tambourine default #t  0)))

>     global = {
>       \time 3/8 s4.
>       \time 2/4 s2*2
>       \time 3/8 s4.
>       \time 2/4 s2
>     }

>     drumsA = {
>       \context DrumVoice <<
>         { \global }
>         { \drummode {
>             \autoBeamOff
>             \stemDown sn8 \stemUp tamb s8 |
>             sn4 \stemDown sn4 |
>             \stemUp tamb8 \stemDown sn8 \stemUp sn16 \stemDown sn \stemUp sn8 |
>             \stemDown sn8 \stemUp tamb s8 |
>             \stemUp sn4 s8 \stemUp tamb
>           }
>         }
>       >>
>     }

>     drumsB = {
>       \drummode {
>         s4 bd8 s2*2 s4 bd8 s4 bd8 s8
>       }
>     }

>     \layout {
>       indent = #40
>     }

>     \score {
>       \new StaffGroup <<
>         \new DrumStaff {
>           \set DrumStaff.instrumentName = \markup {
>             \column {
>               "Tambourine"
>               "et"
>               "caisse claire s. timbre"
>             }
>           }
>           \set DrumStaff.drumStyleTable = #(alist->hash-table mydrums)
>           \drumsA
>         }

>        \new DrumStaff {
>          \set DrumStaff.instrumentName = #"Grosse Caisse"
>          \set DrumStaff.drumStyleTable = #(alist->hash-table mydrums)
>          \drumsB }
>       >>
>     }

#### See also

Snippets: Percussion.

Internals Reference: DrumStaff, DrumVoice.

#### Ghost notes

Ghost notes for drums and percussion may be created using the `\parenthesize` command detailed in Parentheses. However, the default `\drummode` does not include the `Parenthesis_engraver` plugin which allows this.

>     \new DrumStaff \with {
>       \consists "Parenthesis_engraver"
>     }
>     <<
>       \context DrumVoice  = "1" { s1 }
>       \context DrumVoice  = "2" { s1 }
>       \drummode {
>         <<
>           {
>             hh8[ hh] <hh sn> hh16
>             < \parenthesize sn > hh
>             < \parenthesize sn > hh8 <hh sn> hh
>           } \\
>           {
>             bd4 r4 bd8 bd r8 bd
>           }
>         >>
>       }
>     >>

Also note that you must add chords (`< >` brackets) around each `\parenthesize` statement.

#### See also

Snippets: Percussion.

## 2.6 Wind instruments

This section includes some elements of music notation that arise when writing for winds.

### 2.6.1 Common notation for wind instruments

This section discusses some issues common to most wind instruments.

#### References for wind instruments

Many notation issues for wind instruments pertain to breathing and tonguing:

- Breathing can be specified by rests or Breath marks.
- Legato playing is indicated by Slurs.
- Different types of tonguings, ranging from legato to non-legato to stacatto are usually shown by articulation marks, sometimes combined with slurs, see Articulations and ornamentations and List of articulations.
- Flutter tonguing is usually indicated by placing a tremolo mark and a text markup on the note. See Tremolo repeats.

There are also other aspects of musical notation that can apply to wind instruments:

- Many wind instruments are transposing intruments, see Instrument transpositions.
- The slide glissando are characteristic of the trombone, but other winds may perform keyed or valved glissandi. See Glissando.
- Harmonic series glissandi, which are possible on all brass instruments but common for French Horns, are usually written out as Grace notes.
- Pitch inflections at the end of a note are discussed in Falls and doits.
- Key slaps or valve slaps are often shown by the `cross` style of Special note heads.
- Woodwinds can overblow low notes to sound harmonics. These are shown by the `flageolet` articulation. See List of articulations.
- The use of brass mutes is usually indicated by a text markup, but where there are many rapid changes it is better to use the `stopped` and `open` articulations. See Articulations and ornamentations and List of articulations.
- Stopped horns are indicated by the `stopped` articulation. See Articulations and ornamentations.

#### Selected Snippets

Changing \flageolet mark size

To make the `\flageolet` circle smaller use the following Scheme function.

>     smallFlageolet =
>     #(let ((m (make-music 'ArticulationEvent
>                           'articulation-type "flageolet")))
>        (ly:music-set-property! m 'tweaks
>          (acons 'font-size -3
>            (ly:music-property m 'tweaks)))
>       m)

>     \layout { ragged-right = ##f }

>     \relative c'' {
>       d4^\flageolet_\markup { default size } d_\flageolet
>       c4^\smallFlageolet_\markup { smaller } c_\smallFlageolet
>     }

#### See also

Notation Reference: Breath marks, Slurs, Articulations and ornamentations, List of articulations, Tremolo repeats, Instrument transpositions, Glissando, Grace notes, Falls and doits, Special note heads,

Snippets: Winds

#### Fingerings

All wind instruments other than the trombone require the use of several fingers to produce each pitch.

TBC

### 2.6.2 Bagpipes

This section includes extra information for writing for bagpipes.

#### Bagpipe definitions

LilyPond contains special definitions for music for the Scottish highland bagpipe; to use them, add

>     \include "bagpipe.ly"

at the top of your input file. This lets you add the special grace notes common to bagpipe music with short commands. For example, you could write `\taor` instead of

>     \grace { \small G32[ d G e] }

`bagpipe.ly` also contains pitch definitions for the bagpipe notes in the appropriate octaves, so you do not need to worry about `\relative` or `\transpose`.

>     \include "bagpipe.ly"
>     { \grg G4 \grg a \grg b \grg c \grg d \grg e \grg f \grA g A }

Bagpipe music nominally uses the key of D Major (even though that isn’t really true). However, since that is the only key that can be used, the key signature is normally not written out. To set this up correctly, always start your music with `\hideKeySignature`. If you for some reason want to show the key signature, you can use `\showKeySignature` instead.

Some modern music use cross fingering on c and f to flatten those notes. This can be indicated by `cflat` or `fflat`. Similarly, the piobaireachd high g can be written `gflat` when it occurs in light music.

#### See also

Winds

#### Bagpipe example

This is what the well known tune Amazing Grace looks like in bagpipe notation.

>     \include "bagpipe.ly"
>     \layout {
>       indent = 0.0\cm
>       \context { \Score \remove "Bar_number_engraver" }
>     }

>     \header {
>       title = "Amazing Grace"
>       meter = "Hymn"
>       arranger = "Trad. arr."
>     }

>     {
>       \hideKeySignature
>       \time 3/4
>       \grg \partial 4 a8. d16
>       \slurd d2 \grg f8[ e32 d16.]
>       \grg f2 \grg f8 e
>       \thrwd d2 \grg b4
>       \grG a2 \grg a8. d16
>       \slurd d2 \grg f8[ e32 d16.]
>       \grg f2 \grg e8. f16
>       \dblA A2 \grg A4
>       \grg A2 f8. A16
>       \grg A2 \hdblf f8[ e32 d16.]
>       \grg f2 \grg f8 e
>       \thrwd d2 \grg b4
>       \grG a2 \grg a8. d16
>       \slurd d2 \grg f8[ e32 d16.]
>       \grg f2 e4
>       \thrwd d2.
>       \slurd d2
>       \bar "|."
>     }

#### See also

Winds

## 2.7 Chord notation

Chords can be entered either as normal notes or in chord mode and displayed using a variety of traditional European chord naming conventions. Chord names and figured bass notation can also be displayed.

### 2.7.1 Chord mode

Chord mode is used to enter chords using an indicator of the chord structure, rather than the chord pitches.

#### Chord mode overview

Chords can be entered as simultaneous music, as discussed in Chorded notes.

Chords can also be entered in “chord mode”, which is an input mode that focuses on the structures of chords in traditional European music, rather than on specific pitches. This is convenient for those who are familiar with using chord names to describe chords. More information on different input modes can be found at Input modes.

>     \chordmode { c1 g a g c }

Chords entered using chord mode are music elements, and can be transposed just like chords entered using simultaneous music.

Chord mode and note mode can be mixed in sequential music:

>     <c e g>2 <g b d>
>     \chordmode { c2 f }
>     <c e g>2 <g' b d>
>     \chordmode { f2 g }

#### See also

Music Glossary: chord.

Notation Reference: Chorded notes, Input modes.

Snippets: Chords

#### Known issues and warnings

When chord mode and note mode are mixed in sequential music, and chord mode comes first, the note mode will create a new `Staff` context.

>     \chordmode { c2 f }
>     <c e g>2 <g' b d>

To avoid this behavior, explicitly create the `Staff` context:

>     \new Staff {
>       \chordmode { c2 f }
>       <c e g>2  <g' b d>
>     }

#### Common chords

Major triads are entered by including the root and an optional duration:

>     \chordmode { c2 f4 g }

Minor, augmented, and diminished triads are entered by placing `:` and a quality modifier string after the duration:

>     \chordmode { c2:m f4:aug g:dim }

Seventh chords can be created:

>     \chordmode { c1:7 c:m7 c:maj7 c:dim7 c:aug7 }

The table belows shows the actions of the quality modifiers on triads and seventh chords. The default seventh step added to chords is a minor or flatted seventh, which makes the dominant seventh the basic seventh chord. All alterations are relative to the dominant seventh. A more complete table of modifier usage is found at Common chord modifiers.

Modifier | Action | Example
None | The default action; produces a major triad. |
m, m7 | The minor chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd. |
dim, dim7 | The diminished chord. This modifier lowers the 3rd, 5th and (if present) the 7th step. |
aug | The augmented chord. This modifier raises the 5th step. |
maj, maj7 | The major 7th chord. This modifier adds a raised 7th step. The `7` following `maj` is optional. Do NOT use this modifier to create a major triad. |

#### See also

Notation Reference: Common chord modifiers, Extended and altered chords.

Snippets: Chords.

#### Known issues and warnings

Only one quality modifier should be used per chord, typically on the highest step present in the chord. Chords with more than quality modifier will be parsed without an error or warning, but the results are unpredictable. Chords that cannot be achieved with a single quality modifier should be altered by individual pitches, as described in Extended and altered chords.

#### Extended and altered chords

Chord structures of arbitrary complexity can be created in chord mode. The modifier string can be used to extend a chord, add or remove chord steps, raise or lower chord steps, and add a bass note or create an inversion.

The first number following the `:` is taken to be the extent of the chord. The chord is constructed by sequentially adding thirds to the root until the specified number has been reached. Note that the seventh step added as part of an extended chord will be the minor or flatted seventh, not the major seventh. If the extent is not a third (e.g., 6), thirds are added up to the highest third below the extent, and then the step of the extent is added. The largest possible value for the extent is 13. Any larger value is interpreted as 13.

>     \chordmode {
>       c1:2 c:3 c:4 c:5
>       c1:6 c:7 c:8 c:9
>       c1:10 c:11 c:12 c:13
>       c1:14
>     }

Note that both `c:5` and `c` produce a C major triad.

Since an unaltered 11 does not sound good when combined with an unaltered 13, the 11 is removed from a `:13` chord (unless it is added explicitly).

>     \chordmode {
>       c1:13 c:13.11 c:m13
>     }

Individual steps can be added to a chord. Additions follow the extent and are prefixed by a dot (`.`). The basic seventh step added to a chord is the minor or flatted seventh, rather than the major seventh.

>     \chordmode {
>       c1:5.6 c:3.7.8 c:3.6.13
>     }

Added steps can be as high as desired.

>     \chordmode {
>       c4:5.15 c:5.20 c:5.25 c:5.30
>     }

Added chord steps can be altered by suffixing a `-` or `+` sign to the number. To alter a step that is automatically included as part of the basic chord structure, add it as an altered step.

>     \chordmode {
>       c1:7+ c:5+.3- c:3-.5-.7-
>     }

Following any steps to be added, a series of steps to be removed is introduced in a modifier string with a prefix of `^`. If more than one step is to be removed, the steps to be removed are separated by `.` following the initial `^`.

>     \chordmode {
>       c1^3 c:7^5 c:9^3 c:9^3.5 c:13.11^3.7
>     }

The modifier `sus` can be added to the modifier string to create suspended chords. This removes the 3rd step from the chord. Append either `2` or `4` to add the 2nd or 4th step to the chord. `sus` is equivalent to `^3`; `sus4` is equivalent to `.4^3`.

>     \chordmode {
>       c1:sus c:sus2 c:sus4 c:5.4^3
>     }

Inversions (putting a pitch other than the root on the bottom of the chord) and added bass notes can be specified by appending `/`pitch to the chord.

>     \chordmode {
>       c1 c/g c/f
>     }

A bass note that is part of the chord can be added, instead of moved as part of an inversion, by using `/+`pitch.

>     \chordmode {
>       c1 c/g c/+g
>     }

Chord modifiers that can be used to produce a variety of standard chords are shown in Common chord modifiers.

#### See also

Notation Reference: Common chord modifiers.

Snippets: Chords

#### Known issues and warnings

Each step can only be present in a chord once. The following simply produces the augmented chord, since `5+` is interpreted last.

>     \chordmode { c1:5.5-.5+ }

Only the second inversion can be created by adding a bass note. The first inversion requires changing the root of the chord.

>     \chordmode {
>       c'1: c':/g e:6-3-^5 e:m6-^5
>     }

### 2.7.2 Displaying chords

Chords can be displayed by name, in addition to the standard display as notes on a staff.

#### Printing chord names

Chord names are printed in the `ChordNames` context:

>     \new ChordNames {
>       \chordmode {
>         c2 f4. g8
>       }
>     }

Chords can be entered as simultaneous notes or through the use of chord mode. The displayed chord name will be the same, regardless of the mode of entry, unless there are inversions or added bass notes:

>     <<
>       \new ChordNames {
>         <c e g>2  <f bes c>
>         <f c' e g>1
>         \chordmode {
>           c2 f:sus4 c1:/f
>         }
>       }
>       {
>         <c e g>2  <f bes c>
>         <f, c' e g>1
>         \chordmode {
>           c2 f:sus4 c1:/f
>         }
>       }
>     >>

`\chords { ... }` is a shortcut notation for `\new ChordNames { \chordmode { ... } }`.

>     \chords {
>       c2 f4.:m g8:maj7
>     }

>     \new ChordNames {
>       \chordmode {
>         c2 f4.:m g8:maj7
>       }
>     }

#### Selected Snippets

Showing chords at changes

Chord names can be displayed only at the start of lines and when the chord changes.

>     harmonies = \chordmode {
>       c1:m c:m \break c:m c:m d
>     }
>     <<
>       \new ChordNames {
>         \set chordChanges = ##t
>         \harmonies
>       }
>       \new Staff {
>         \relative c' { \harmonies }
>       }
>     >>

Simple lead sheet

When put together, chord names, a melody, and lyrics form a lead sheet:

>     <<
>       \chords { c2 g:sus4 f e }
>       \relative c'' {
>         a4 e c8 e r4
>         b2 c4( d)
>       }
>       \addlyrics { One day this shall be free __ }
>     >>

#### See also

Music Glossary: chord.

Notation Reference: Writing music in parallel.

Snippets: Chords.

Internals Reference: ChordNames, ChordName, Chord_name_engraver, Volta_engraver, Bar_engraver.

#### Known issues and warnings

Chords containing inversions or altered bass notes are not named properly if entered using simultaneous music.

#### Customizing chord names

There is no unique system for naming chords. Different musical traditions use different names for the same set of chords. There are also different symbols displayed for a given chord name. The names and symbols displayed for chord names are customizable.

The basic chord name layout is a system for Jazz music, proposed by Klaus Ignatzek (see Literature list). The chord naming system can be modified as described below. An alternate jazz chord system has been developed using these modifications. The Ignatzek and alternate Jazz notation are shown on the chart in Chord name chart.

In addition to the different naming systems, different note names are used for the root in different languages. The predefined variables `\germanChords`, `\semiGermanChords`, `\italianChords` and `\frenchChords` set these variables. The effect is demonstrated here:

If none of the existing settings give the desired output, the chord name display can be tuned through the following properties.

`chordRootNamer`

  The chord name is usually printed as a letter for the root with an optional alteration. The transformation from pitch to letter is done by this function. Special note names (for example, the German ‘H’ for a B-chord) can be produced by storing a new function in this property.

`majorSevenSymbol`

  This property contains the markup object used to follow the output of `chordRootNamer` to identify a major 7 chord. Predefined options are `whiteTriangleMarkup` and `blackTriangleMarkup`.

`chordNoteNamer`

  When the chord name contains additional pitches other than the root (e.g., an added bass note), this function is used to print the additional pitch. By default the pitch is printed using `chordRootNamer`. The `chordNoteNamer` property can be set to a specialized function to change this behavior. For example, the bass note can be printed in lower case.

`chordNameSeparator`

  Different parts of a chord name are normally separated by a slash. By setting `chordNameSeparator`, you can use any desired markup for a separator.

`chordNameExceptions`

  This property is a list of pairs. The first item in each pair is a set of pitches used to identify the steps present in the chord. The second item is a markup that will follow the `chordRootNamer` output to create the chord name.

`chordPrefixSpacer`

  The ‘m’ for minor chords is usually printed immediately to the right of the root of the chord. A spacer can be placed between the root and ‘m’ by setting `chordPrefixSpacer`. The spacer is not used when the root is altered.

#### Predefined commands

`\whiteTriangleMarkup`, `\blackTriangleMarkup`, `\germanChords`, `\semiGermanChords`, `\italianChords`, `\frenchChords`.

#### Selected Snippets

Chord name exceptions

The property `chordNameExceptions` can be used to store a list of special notations for specific chords.

>     % modify maj9 and 6(add9)
>     % Exception music is chords with markups
>     chExceptionMusic = {
>       <c e g b d'>1-\markup { \super "maj9" }
>       <c e g a d'>1-\markup { \super "6(add9)" }
>     }

>     % Convert music to list and prepend to existing exceptions.
>     chExceptions = #( append
>       ( sequential-music-to-chord-exceptions chExceptionMusic #t)
>       ignatzekExceptions)

>     theMusic = \chordmode {
>       g1:maj9 g1:6.9
>       \set chordNameExceptions = #chExceptions
>       g1:maj9 g1:6.9
>     }

>     \layout {
>       ragged-right = ##t
>     }

>     << \context ChordNames \theMusic
>        \context Voice \theMusic
>     >>

chord name major7

The layout of the major 7 can be tuned with `majorSevenSymbol`.

>     \chords {
>       c:7+
>       \set majorSevenSymbol = \markup { j7 }
>       c:7+
>     }

Adding bar lines to ChordNames context

To add bar line indications in the `ChordNames` context, add the `Bar_engraver`.

>     \new ChordNames \with {
>       \override BarLine #'bar-size = #4
>       \consists "Bar_engraver"
>     }
>     \chordmode {
>       f1:maj7 f:7 bes:7
>     }

Volta below chords

By adding the `Volta_engraver` to the relevant staff, volte can be put under chords.

>     \score {
>       <<
>         \chords {
>           c1
>           c1
>         }
>         \new Staff \with {
>           \consists "Volta_engraver"
>         }
>         {
>           \repeat volta 2 { c'1 }
>           \alternative { c' }
>         }
>       >>
>       \layout {
>         \context {
>           \Score
>           \remove "Volta_engraver"
>         }
>       }
>     }

Changing chord separator

The separator between different parts of a chord name can be set to any markup.

>     \chords {
>       c:7sus4
>       \set chordNameSeparator
>         = \markup { \typewriter | }
>       c:7sus4
>     }

#### See also

Notation Reference: Chord name chart, Common chord modifiers.

Installed Files: ‘`scm/chords-ignatzek.scm`’, ‘`scm/chord-entry.scm`’, ‘`ly/chord-modifier-init.ly`’.

Snippets: Chords.

#### Known issues and warnings

Chord names are determined from both the pitches that are present in the chord and the information on the chord structure that may have been entered in `\chordmode`. If the simultaneous pitches method of entering chords is used, undesired names result from inversions or bass notes.

>     myChords = \relative c' {
>       \chordmode { c1 c/g c/f }
>       <c e g>1 <g c e> <f c' e g>
>     }
>     <<
>       \new ChordNames { \myChords }
>       \new Staff { \myChords }
>     >>

### 2.7.3 Figured bass

Figured bass notation can be displayed.

#### Introduction to figured bass

LilyPond has support for figured bass, also called thorough bass or basso continuo:

>     <<
>       \new Voice { \clef bass dis4 c d ais g fis}
>       \new FiguredBass {
>         \figuremode {
>           < 6 >4 < 7\+ >8 < 6+ [_!] >
>           < 6 >4 <6 5 [3+] >
>           < _ >4 < 6 5/>4
>         }
>       }
>     >>

The support for figured bass consists of two parts: there is an input mode, introduced by `\figuremode`, that accepts entry of bass figures, and there is a context named `FiguredBass` that takes care of displaying `BassFigure` objects. Figured bass can also be displayed in `Staff` contexts.

`\figures{ ... }` is a shortcut notation for `\new FiguredBass { \figuremode { ... } }`.

Although the support for figured bass may superficially resemble chord support, it is much simpler. `\figuremode` mode simply stores the figures and the `FiguredBass` context prints them as entered. There is no conversion to pitches.

#### See also

Music Glossary: figured bass.

Snippets: Chords

#### Entering figured bass

`\figuremode` is used to switch the input mode to figure mode. More information on different input modes can be found at Input modes.

In figure mode, a group of bass figures is delimited by `<` and `>`. The duration is entered after the `>`.

>     \new FiguredBass {
>       \figuremode {
>         <6 4>2
>       }
>     }

Accidentals (including naturals) can be added to figures:

>     \figures {
>       <7! 6+ 4-> <5++> <3-->
>     }

Augmented and diminished steps can be indicated:

>     \figures {
>       <6\+ 5/> <7/>
>     }

A backward slash through a figure (typically used for raised sixth steps) can be created:

>     \figures {
>       <6> <6\\>
>     }

Vertical spaces and brackets can be be included in figures:

>     \figures {
>       <[12 _!] 8 [6  4]>
>     }

Any text markup can be inserted as a figure:

>     \figures {
>       <\markup { \tiny \number 6 \super (1) } 5>
>     }

Continuation lines can be used to indicate repeated figures:

>     <<
>       {
>         \clef bass
>         e4 d c b,
>         e4 d c b,
>       }
>       \figures {
>         \bassFigureExtendersOn
>         <6 4>4 <6 3> <7 3> <7 3>
>         \bassFigureExtendersOff
>         <6 4>4 <6 3> <7 3> <7 3>
>       }
>     >>

In this case, the extender lines replace existing figures, unless the continuation lines have been explicitly terminated.

>     <<
>       \figures {
>         \bassFigureExtendersOn
>         <6 4>4 <6 4> <6\! 4\!> <6 4>
>       }
>       {
>         \clef bass
>         d4 d c c
>       }
>     >>

The table below summarizes the figure modifiers available.

Modifier | Purpose | Example
+, -, ! | Accidentals |
\+, / | Augmented and diminished steps |
\\ | Raised sixth step |
\! | End of continuation line |

#### Predefined commands

`\bassFigureExtendersOn`, `\bassFigureExtendersOff`.

#### Selected Snippets

Changing the positions of figured bass alterations

Accidentals and plus signs can appear before or after the numbers, depending on the `figuredBassAlterationDirection` and `figuredBassPlusDirection` properties.

>     \figures {
>       <6\+> <5+> <6 4-> r
>       \set figuredBassAlterationDirection = #RIGHT
>       <6\+> <5+> <6 4-> r
>       \set figuredBassPlusDirection = #RIGHT
>       <6\+> <5+> <6 4-> r
>       \set figuredBassAlterationDirection = #LEFT
>       <6\+> <5+> <6 4-> r
>     }

#### See also

Snippets: Chords.

Internals Reference: BassFigure, BassFigureAlignment, BassFigureLine, BassFigureBracket, BassFigureContinuation, FiguredBass.

#### Displaying figured bass

Figured bass can be displayed using the `FiguredBass` context, or in most staff contexts.

When displayed in a `FiguredBass` context, the vertical location of the figures is independent of the notes on the staff.

>     <<
>       \relative c'' {
>         c4 c'8 r8 c,4 c'
>       }
>       \new FiguredBass {
>         \figuremode {
>           <4>4 <10 6>8 s8
>           <6 4>4 <6 4>
>         }
>       }
>     >>

In the example above, the `FiguredBass` context must be explicitly instantiated to avoid creating a second (empty) staff.

Figured bass can also be added to `Staff` contexts directly. In this case, the vertical position of the figures is adjusted automatically.

>     <<
>       \new Staff = myStaff
>       \figuremode {
>         <4>4 <10 6>8 s8
>         <6 4>4 <6 4>
>       }
>       %% Put notes on same Staff as figures
>       \context Staff = myStaff
>       {
>         \clef bass
>         c4 c'8 r8 c4 c'
>       }
>     >>

When added in a `Staff` context, figured bass can be displayed above or below the staff.

>     <<
>       \new Staff = myStaff
>       \figuremode {
>         <4>4 <10 6>8 s8
>         \bassFigureStaffAlignmentDown
>         <6 4>4 <6 4>
>       }
>       %% Put notes on same Staff as figures
>       \context Staff = myStaff
>       {
>         \clef bass
>         c4 c'8 r8 c4 c'
>       }
>     >>

#### Predefined commands

`\bassFigureStaffAlignmentDown`, `\bassFigureStaffAlignmentUp`, `\bassFigureStaffAlignmentNeutral`.

#### See also

Snippets: Chords.

Internals Reference: BassFigure, BassFigureAlignment, BassFigureLine, BassFigureBracket, BassFigureContinuation, FiguredBass.

#### Known issues and warnings

To ensure that continuation lines work properly, it is safest to use the same rhythm in the figure line as in the bass line.

>     <<
>       {
>         \clef bass
>         \repeat unfold 4 { f16. g32 } f8. es16 d8 es
>       }
>       \figures {
>         \bassFigureExtendersOn
>         % The extenders are correct here, with the same rhythm as the bass
>         \repeat unfold 4 { <6 4->16. <6 4->32 }
>         <5>8. r16 <6>8 <6\! 5->
>       }
>     >>
>     <<
>       {
>         \clef bass
>         \repeat unfold 4 { f16. g32 } f8. es16 d8 es
>       }
>       \figures {
>         \bassFigureExtendersOn
>         % The extenders are incorrect here, even though the timing is the same
>         <6 4->4 <6 4->4
>         <5>8. r16 <6>8 <6\! 5->
>       }
>     >>

When using extender lines, adjacent figures with the same number in a different figure location can cause the figure positions to invert.

>     <<
>      { fis4 g g, e' }
>       \figures {
>         \bassFigureExtendersOn
>         <6 5>4 <5\! 4> < 5 _!> <6>
>       }
>     >>

To avoid this problem, simply turn on extenders after the figure that begins the extender line and turn them off at the end of the extender line.

>     <<
>      { fis4 g g, e' }
>       \figures {
>         <6 5>4 <5 4>
>         \bassFigureExtendersOn
>         < 5 _!>4 <6>
>         \bassFigureExtendersOff
>       }
>     >>

## 2.8 Ancient notation

Support for ancient notation includes features for mensural notation and Gregorian chant notation. These features can be accessed either by modifying style properties of graphical objects such as note heads and rests, or by using one of the pre-defined contexts for mensural or Gregorian notation.

Many graphical objects, such as note heads and flags, accidentals, time signatures, and rests, provide a `style` property, which can be changed to emulate several different styles of ancient notation. See

- Mensural note heads,
- Mensural accidentals and key signatures,
- Mensural rests,
- Mensural clefs,
- Gregorian clefs,
- Mensural flags,
- Mensural time signatures.

Some notational concepts are introduced specifically for ancient notation,

- Custodes,
- Divisiones,
- Ligatures.

### 2.8.1 Overview of the supported styles

Three styles are available for typesetting Gregorian chant:

- Editio Vaticana is a complete style for Gregorian chant, following the appearance of the Solesmes editions, the official chant books of the Vatican since 1904. Lilypond has support for all the notational signs used in this style, including ligatures, custodes, and special signs such as the quilisma and the oriscus.
- The Editio Medicaea style offers certain features used in the Medicaea (or Ratisbona) editions which were used prior to the Solesmes editions. The most significant differences from the Vaticana style are the clefs, which have downward-slanted strokes, and the noteheads, which are square and regular.
- The Hufnagel (“horseshoe nail”) or Gothic style mimics the writing style in chant manuscripts from Germany and Central Europe during the middle ages. It is named after the basic note shape (the virga), which looks like a small nail.

Three styles emulate the appearance of late-medieval and renaissance manuscripts and prints of mensural music:

- The Mensural style most closely resembles the writing style used in late-medieval and early renaissance manuscripts, with its small and narrow, diamond-shaped noteheads and its rests which approach a hand-drawn style.
- The Neomensural style is a modernized and stylized version of the former: the noteheads are broader and the rests are made up of straight lines. This style is particularly suited, e.g., for incipits of transcribed pieces of mensural music.
- The Petrucci style is named after Ottaviano Petrucci (1466-1539), the first printer to use movable type for music (in his Harmonice musices odhecaton, 1501). The style uses larger note heads than the other mensural styles.

Baroque and Classical are not complete styles but differ from the default style only in some details: certain noteheads (Baroque) and the quarter rest (Classical).

Only the mensural style has alternatives for all aspects of the notation. Thus, there are no rests or flags in the Gregorian styles, since these signs are not used in plainchant notation, and the Petrucci style has no flags or accidentals of its own.

Each element of the notation can be changed independently of the others, so that one can use mensural flags, petrucci noteheads, classical rests and vaticana clefs in the same piece, if one wishes.

### 2.8.2 Ancient notation—common features

#### Pre-defined contexts

For Gregorian chant and mensural notation, there are pre-defined voice and staff contexts available, which set all the various notation signs to values suitable for these styles. If one is satisfied with these defaults, one can proceed directly with note entry without worrying about the details on how to customize a context. See one of the pre-defined contexts `VaticanaVoice`, `VaticanaStaff`, `MensuralVoice`, and `MensuralStaff`. See further

- Gregorian chant contexts,
- Mensural contexts.

#### Ligatures

A ligature is a graphical symbol that represents at least two distinct notes. Ligatures originally appeared in the manuscripts of Gregorian chant notation to denote ascending or descending sequences of notes on the same syllable. They are also used in mensural notation.

Ligatures are entered by enclosing them in `\[` and `\]`. Some ligature styles may need additional input syntax specific for this particular type of ligature. By default, the LigatureBracket engraver just puts a square bracket above the ligature.

>     \transpose c c' {
>       \[ g c a f d' \]
>       a g f
>       \[ e f a g \]
>     }

Two other ligature styles are available: the Vaticana for Gregorian chant, and the Mensural for mensural music (only white mensural ligatures are supported for mensural music, and with certain limitations). To use any of these styles, the default `Ligature_bracket_engraver` has to be replaced with one of the specialized ligature engravers in the Voice context, as explained in White mensural ligatures and Gregorian square neume ligatures.

#### See also

#### Known issues and warnings

Ligatures need special spacing that has not yet been implemented. As a result, there is too much space between ligatures most of the time, and line breaking often is unsatisfactory. Also, lyrics do not correctly align with ligatures.

Accidentals must not be printed within a ligature, but instead need to be collected and printed in front of it.

The syntax still uses the deprecated infix style `\[ music expr \]`. For consistency reasons, it will eventually be changed to postfix style `note\[ ... note\]`.

#### Custodes

A custos (plural: custodes; Latin word for “guard”) is a symbol that appears at the end of a staff. It anticipates the pitch of the first note of the following line, thus helping the performer to manage line breaks during performance.

Custodes were frequently used in music notation until the seventeenth century. Nowadays, they have survived only in a few particular forms of musical notation such as contemporary editions of Gregorian chant like the Editio Vaticana. There are different custos glyphs used in different flavors of notational style.

For typesetting custodes, just put a Custos_engraver into the Staff context when declaring the `\layout` block, and change the style of the custos with an `\override` if desired, as shown in the following example:

The custos glyph is selected by the `style` property. The styles supported are `vaticana`, `medicaea`, `hufnagel`, and `mensural`. They are demonstrated in the following fragment

#### See also

Internals Reference: Custos.

Examples: Ancient notation.

#### Figured bass support

There is limited support for figured bass notation from the Baroque period; see Figured bass.

### 2.8.3 Typesetting mensural music

#### Mensural contexts

The predefined `MensuralVoice` and `MensuralStaff` contexts can be used to engrave a piece in mensural style. These contexts initialize all relevant context properties and grob properties to proper values, so you can immediately go ahead entering the chant, as the following excerpt demonstrates:

>     \score {
>       <<
>         \new MensuralVoice = "discantus" \transpose c c' {
>           \override Score.BarNumber #'transparent = ##t {
>             c'1\melisma bes a g\melismaEnd
>             f\breve
>             \[ f1\melisma a c'\breve d'\melismaEnd \]
>             c'\longa
>             c'\breve\melisma a1 g1\melismaEnd
>             fis\longa^\signumcongruentiae
>           }
>         }
>         \new Lyrics \lyricsto "discantus" {
>           San -- ctus, San -- ctus, San -- ctus
>         }
>       >>
>     }

#### See also

TODO: nothing here yet ...

#### Mensural clefs

The following table shows all mensural clefs that are supported via the `\clef` command. Some of the clefs use the same glyph, but differ only with respect to the line they are printed on. In such cases, a trailing number in the name is used to enumerate these clefs, numbered from the lowest to the highest line. Still, you can manually force a clef glyph to be typeset on an arbitrary line, as described in Clef. The note printed to the right side of each clef in the example column denotes the `c'` with respect to that clef.

Petrucci used C clefs with differently balanced left-side vertical beams, depending on which staff line it is printed.

Description | Supported Clefs | Example
mensural C clef | `mensural-c1`, `mensural-c2`, `mensural-c3`, `mensural-c4` |
mensural F clef | `mensural-f` |
mensural G clef | `mensural-g` |
neomensural C clef | `neomensural-c1`, `neomensural-c2`, `neomensural-c3`, `neomensural-c4` |
petrucci style C clefs, for use on different staff lines (the example shows the 2nd staff line C clef) | `petrucci-c1`, `petrucci-c2`, `petrucci-c3`, `petrucci-c4`, `petrucci-c5` |
petrucci style F clef | `petrucci-f` |
petrucci style G clef | `petrucci-g` |

#### See also

Notation Reference: see Clef.

#### Known issues and warnings

The mensural g clef is mapped to the Petrucci g clef.

#### Mensural time signatures

There is limited support for mensuration signs (which are similar to, but not exactly the same as time signatures). The glyphs are hard-wired to particular time fractions. In other words, to get a particular mensuration sign with the `\time n/m` command, `n` and `m` have to be chosen according to the following table

Use the `style` property of grob TimeSignature to select ancient time signatures. Supported styles are `neomensural` and `mensural`. The above table uses the `neomensural` style. The following examples show the differences in style:

#### See also

Notation Reference: Time signature, gives a general introduction to the use of time signatures.

#### Known issues and warnings

Ratios of note durations do not change with the time signature. For example, the ratio of 1 breve = 3 semibreves (tempus perfectum) must be made by hand, by setting

>     breveTP = #(ly:make-duration -1 0 3 2)
>     …
>     { c\breveTP f1 }

This sets `breveTP` to 3/2 times 2 = 3 times a whole note.

The `mensural68alt` and `neomensural68alt` symbols (alternate symbols for 6/8) are not addressable with `\time`. Use `\markup {\musicglyph #"timesig.mensural68alt" }` instead.

#### Mensural note heads

For ancient notation, a note head style other than the `default` style may be chosen. This is accomplished by setting the `style` property of the NoteHead object to `baroque`, `neomensural`, `mensural` or `petrucci`.

The `baroque` style differs from the `default` style by:

- Providing a `maxima` notehead, and
- Using a square shape for `\breve` note heads.

The `neomensural`, `mensural`, and `petrucci` styles differ from the `baroque` style by:

- Using rhomboidal heads for semibreves and all smaller durations, and
- Centering the stems on the note heads.

The following example demonstrates the `petrucci` style:

>     \set Score.skipBars = ##t
>     \autoBeamOff
>     \override NoteHead #'style = #'petrucci
>     a'\maxima a'\longa a'\breve a'1 a'2 a'4 a'8 a'16 a'

#### See also

Note head styles gives an overview of all available note head styles.

#### Mensural flags

Use the `flag-style` property of grob Stem to select ancient flags. Besides the `default` flag style, only the `mensural` style is supported.

>     \override Stem #'flag-style = #'mensural
>     \override Stem #'thickness = #1.0
>     \override NoteHead #'style = #'mensural
>     \autoBeamOff
>     c'8 d'8 e'8 f'8 c'16 d'16 e'16 f'16 c'32 d'32 e'32 f'32 s8
>     c''8 d''8 e''8 f''8 c''16 d''16 e''16 f''16 c''32 d''32 e''32 f''32

Note that the innermost flare of each mensural flag always is vertically aligned with a staff line.

There is no particular flag style for neo-mensural or Petrucci notation. There are no flags in Gregorian chant notation.

#### See also

TODO: nothing here yet ...

#### Known issues and warnings

The attachment of ancient flags to stems is slightly off.

Vertically aligning each flag with a staff line assumes that stems always end either exactly on or exactly in the middle between two staff lines. This may not always be true when using advanced layout features of classical notation (which however are typically out of scope for mensural notation).

#### Mensural rests

Use the `style` property of grob Rest to select ancient rests. Supported styles are `classical`, `neomensural`, and `mensural`. `classical` differs from the `default` style only in that the quarter rest looks like a horizontally mirrored 8th rest. The `mensural` and the `neomensural` styles mimic the appearance of rests in manuscripts and prints up to the 16th century.

The following example demonstrates the `mensural` and `neomensural` styles:

>     \set Score.skipBars = ##t
>     \override Rest #'style = #'classical
>     r\longa^"classical" r\breve r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 s \break
>     \override Rest #'style = #'mensural
>     r\longa^"mensural" r\breve r1 r2 r4 r8 r16 s \break
>     \override Rest #'style = #'neomensural
>     r\longa^"neomensural" r\breve r1 r2 r4 r8 r16

There are no 32th and 64th rests specifically for the mensural or neo-mensural style. Instead, the rests from the default style will be taken.

See Ancient notation for a chart of all rests.

#### See also

Notation Reference: Rests, gives a general introduction into the use of rests.

#### Mensural accidentals and key signatures

The `mensural` style provides a sharp and a flat sign different from the default style. If called for, the natural sign will be taken from the `vaticana` style.

The style for accidentals and key signatures is controlled by the `glyph-name-alist` property of the grobs Accidental and KeySignature, respectively; e.g.:

`\override Staff.Accidental #'glyph-name-alist = #alteration-mensural-glyph-name-alist`

#### See also

Notation Reference: Pitches, Accidentals, and Automatic accidentals give a general introduction of the use of accidentals. Key signature gives a general introduction of the use of key signatures.

Internals Reference: KeySignature.

#### Annotational accidentals (musica ficta)

In European music from before about 1600, singers were expected to chromatically alter notes at their own initiative according to certain rules. This is called musica ficta. In modern transcriptions, these accidentals are usually printed over the note.

Support for such suggested accidentals is included, and can be switched on by setting `suggestAccidentals` to true.

    fis gis
    \set suggestAccidentals = ##t
    ais bis

This will treat every subsequent accidental as musica ficta until it is unset with `\set suggestAccidentals = ##f`. A more practical way is to use `\once \set suggestAccidentals = ##t`, which can even be defined as a convenient shorthand:

>     ficta = { \once \set suggestAccidentals = ##t }
>     \score { \relative c''
>       \new MensuralVoice  {
>     	\once \set suggestAccidentals = ##t
>       bes4 a2 g2 \ficta fis8 \ficta e! fis2 g1
>       }
>     }

#### See also

Internals Reference: Accidental_engraver engraver and the AccidentalSuggestion object.

#### White mensural ligatures

There is limited support for white mensural ligatures.

To engrave white mensural ligatures, in the layout block, replace the Ligature_bracket_engraver with the Mensural_ligature_engraver in the Voice context:

>     \layout {
>       \context {
>         \Voice
>         \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
>         \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
>       }
>     }

There is no additional input language to describe the shape of a white mensural ligature. The shape is rather determined solely from the pitch and duration of the enclosed notes. While this approach may take a new user a while to get accustomed to, it has the great advantage that the full musical information of the ligature is known internally. This is not only required for correct MIDI output, but also allows for automatic transcription of the ligatures.

For example,

>     \score {
>       \transpose c c' {
>         \set Score.timing = ##f
>         \set Score.defaultBarType = "empty"
>         \override NoteHead #'style = #'neomensural
>         \override Staff.TimeSignature #'style = #'neomensural
>         \clef "petrucci-g"
>         \[ c'\maxima g \]
>         \[ d\longa c\breve f e d \]
>         \[ c'\maxima d'\longa \]
>         \[ e'1 a g\breve \]
>       }
>       \layout {
>         \context {
>           \Voice
>           \remove Ligature_bracket_engraver
>           \consists Mensural_ligature_engraver
>         }
>       }
>     }

Without replacing Ligature_bracket_engraver with Mensural_ligature_engraver, the same music transcribes to the following

#### See also

TODO: nothing here yet ...

#### Known issues and warnings

Horizontal spacing of ligatures is poor.

### 2.8.4 Typesetting Gregorian chant

When typesetting a piece in Gregorian chant notation, the Vaticana_ligature_engraver automatically selects the proper note heads, so there is no need to explicitly set the note head style. Still, the note head style can be set, e.g., to `vaticana_punctum` to produce punctum neumes. Similarly, the Mensural_ligature_engraver automatically assembles mensural ligatures. See Ligatures, for how ligature engravers work.

#### Gregorian chant contexts

The predefined `VaticanaVoiceContext` and `VaticanaStaffContext` can be used to engrave a piece of Gregorian chant in the style of the Editio Vaticana. These contexts initialize all relevant context properties and grob properties to proper values, so you can immediately go ahead entering the chant, as the following excerpt demonstrates:

>     \include "gregorian.ly"
>     \score {
>       <<
>         \new VaticanaVoice = "cantus" {
>           \[ c'\melisma c' \flexa a \]
>           \[ a \flexa \deminutum g\melismaEnd \]
>           f \divisioMinima
>           \[ f\melisma \pes a c' c' \pes d'\melismaEnd \]
>           c' \divisioMinima \break
>           \[ c'\melisma c' \flexa a \]
>           \[ a \flexa \deminutum g\melismaEnd \] f \divisioMinima
>         }
>         \new Lyrics \lyricsto "cantus" {
>           San- ctus, San- ctus, San- ctus
>         }
>       >>
>     }

#### See also

TODO: nothing here yet ...

#### Gregorian clefs

The following table shows all Gregorian clefs that are supported via the `\clef` command. Some of the clefs use the same glyph, but differ only with respect to the line they are printed on. In such cases, a trailing number in the name is used to enumerate these clefs, numbered from the lowest to the highest line. Still, you can manually force a clef glyph to be typeset on an arbitrary line, as described in Clef. The note printed to the right side of each clef in the example column denotes the `c'` with respect to that clef.

Description | Supported Clefs | Example
Editio Vaticana style do clef | `vaticana-do1`, `vaticana-do2`, `vaticana-do3` |
Editio Vaticana style fa clef | `vaticana-fa1`, `vaticana-fa2` |
Editio Medicaea style do clef | `medicaea-do1`, `medicaea-do2`, `medicaea-do3` |
Editio Medicaea style fa clef | `medicaea-fa1`, `medicaea-fa2` |
hufnagel style do clef | `hufnagel-do1`, `hufnagel-do2`, `hufnagel-do3` |
hufnagel style fa clef | `hufnagel-fa1`, `hufnagel-fa2` |
hufnagel style combined do/fa clef | `hufnagel-do-fa` |

#### See also

Notation Reference: see Clef.

#### Gregorian accidentals and key signatures

Accidentals for the three different Gregorian styles are available:

As shown, not all accidentals are supported by each style. When trying to access an unsupported accidental, LilyPond will switch to a different style.

The style for accidentals and key signatures is controlled by the `glyph-name-alist` property of the grobs Accidental and KeySignature, respectively; e.g.:

`\override Staff.Accidental #'glyph-name-alist = #alteration-mensural-glyph-name-alist`

#### See also

Notation Reference: Pitches, Accidentals, and Automatic accidentals give a general introduction of the use of accidentals. Key signature gives a general introduction of the use of key signatures.

Internals Reference: KeySignature.

#### Divisiones

There are no rests in Gregorian chant notation; instead, it uses Divisiones.

A divisio (plural: divisiones; Latin word for ‘division’) is a staff context symbol that is used to indicate the phrase and section structure of Gregorian music. The musical meaning of divisio minima, divisio maior, and divisio maxima can be characterized as short, medium, and long pause, somewhat like the breathmarks from Breath marks. The finalis sign not only marks the end of a chant, but is also frequently used within a single antiphonal/responsorial chant to mark the end of each section.

To use divisiones, include the file ‘`gregorian.ly`’. It contains definitions that you can apply by just inserting `\divisioMinima`, `\divisioMaior`, `\divisioMaxima`, and `\finalis` at proper places in the input. Some editions use virgula or caesura instead of divisio minima. Therefore, ‘`gregorian.ly`’ also defines `\virgula` and `\caesura`

#### Predefined commands

`\virgula`, `\caesura`, `\divisioMinima`, `\divisioMaior`, `\divisioMaxima`, `\finalis`.

#### Gregorian articulation signs

In addition to the standard articulation signs described in section Articulations and ornamentations, articulation signs specifically designed for use with notation in Editio Vaticana style are provided.

>     \include "gregorian.ly"
>     \score {
>       \new VaticanaVoice {
>         \override TextScript #'font-family = #'typewriter
>         \override TextScript #'font-shape = #'upright
>         \override Script #'padding = #-0.1
>         a\ictus_"ictus " \break
>         a\circulus_"circulus " \break
>         a\semicirculus_"semicirculus " \break
>         a\accentus_"accentus " \break
>         \[ a_"episema" \episemInitium \pes b \flexa a b \episemFinis \flexa a \]
>       }
>     }

#### See also

TODO: nothing here yet ...

#### Known issues and warnings

Some articulations are vertically placed too closely to the corresponding note heads.

The episema line is not displayed in many cases. If it is displayed, the right end of the episema line is often too far to the right.

#### Augmentum dots (morae)

Augmentum dots, also called morae, are added with the music function `\augmentum`. Note that `\augmentum` is implemented as a unary music function rather than as head prefix. It applies to the immediately following music expression only. That is, `\augmentum \virga c` will have no visible effect. Instead, say `\virga \augmentum c` or `\augmentum {\virga c}`. Also note that you can say `\augmentum {a g}` as a shortcut for `\augmentum a \augmentum g`.

>     \include "gregorian.ly"
>     \score {
>       \new VaticanaVoice {
>         \[ \augmentum a \flexa \augmentum g \]
>         \augmentum g
>       }
>     }

#### See also

Notation Reference: Breath marks.

Internals Reference: BreathingSign.

Examples: Ancient notation.

#### Gregorian square neume ligatures

There is limited support for Gregorian square neumes notation (following the style of the Editio Vaticana). Core ligatures can already be typeset, but essential issues for serious typesetting are still lacking, such as (among others) horizontal alignment of multiple ligatures, lyrics alignment, and proper handling of accidentals.

The support for Gregorian neumes is enabled by `\include`ing "gregorian.ly" at the beginning of the file. This makes available a number of extra commands to produce the neume symbols used in plainchant notation.

Note heads can be modified and/or joined.

- The shape of the note head can be modified by prefixing the note name with any of the following commands: `\virga`, `\stropha`, `\inclinatum`, `\auctum`, `\descendens`, `\ascendens`, `\oriscus`, `\quilisma`, `\deminutum`, `\cavum`, `\linea`.
- Ligatures, properly speaking (i.e. notes joined together), are produced by placing one of the joining commands `\pes` or `\flexa`, for upwards and downwards movement, respectively, between the notes to be joined.

A note name without any qualifiers will produce a punctum. All other neumes, including the single-note neumes with a different shape such as the virga, are in principle considered as ligatures and should therefore be placed between `\[...\]`.

Single-note neumes:

- The punctum is the basic note shape (in the Vaticana style: a square with some curvation for typographical finesse). In addition to the regular punctum, there is also the oblique punctum inclinatum, produced with the prefix `\inclinatum`. The regular punctum can be modified with `\cavum`, which produces a hollow note, and `\linea`, which draws vertical lines on either side of the note.
- The virga has a descending stem on the right side. It is produced by the modifier `\virga`.

Ligatures

Unlike most other neumes notation systems, the typographical appearance of ligatures is not directly dictated by the input commands, but follows certain conventions dependent on musical meaning. For example, a three-note ligature with the musical shape low-high-low, such as `\[ a \pes b \flexa g \]`, produces a Torculus consisting of three Punctum heads, while the shape high-low-high, such as `\[ a \flexa g \pes b \]`, produces a Porrectus with a curved flexa shape and only a single Punctum head. There is no command to explicitly typeset the curved flexa shape; the decision of when to typeset a curved flexa shape is based on the musical input. The idea of this approach is to separate the musical aspects of the input from the notation style of the output. This way, the same input can be reused to typeset the same music in a different style of Gregorian chant notation.

Liquescent neumes

Another main category of notes in Gregorian chant is the so-called liquescent neumes. They are used under certain circumstances at the end of a syllable which ends in a ‘liquescent’ letter, i.e. the sounding consonants that can hold a tone (the nasals, l, r, v, j, and their diphtong equivalents). Thus, the liquescent neumes are never used alone (although some of them can be produced), and they always fall at the end of a ligature.

Liquescent neumes are represented graphically in two different, more or less interchangeable ways: with a smaller note or by ‘twisting’ the main note upwards or downwards. The first is produced by making a regular `pes` or `flexa` and modifying the shape of the second note: `\[ a \pes \deminutum b \]` , the second by modifying the shape of a single-note neume with `\auctum` and one of the direction markers `\descendens` or `\ascendens`, e.g. `\[ \auctum \descendens a \]` .

Special signs

A third category of signs is made up of a small number of signs with a special meaning (which, incidentally, in most cases is only vaguely known): the quilisma, the oriscus, and the strophicus. These are all produced by prefixing a note name with the corresponding modifier, `\quilisma`, `\oriscus`, or `\stropha`.

Virtually, within the ligature delimiters `\[` and `\]`, any number of heads may be accumulated to form a single ligature, and head prefixes like `\pes`, `\flexa`, `\virga`, `\inclinatum`, etc. may be mixed in as desired. The use of the set of rules that underlies the construction of the ligatures in the above table is accordingly extrapolated. This way, infinitely many different ligatures can be created.

Note that the use of these signs in the music itself follows certain rules, which are not checked by Lilypond. E.g., the quilisma is always the middle note of an ascending ligature, and usually falls on a half-tone step, but it is perfectly possible, although incorrect, to make a single-note quilisma.

In addition to the note signs, gregorian.ly also defines the commands `\versus`, `\responsum`, `\ij`, `\iij`, `\IJ`, and `\IIJ`, that will produce the corresponding characters, e.g. for use in lyrics, as section markers, etc. These commands use special unicode characters and will only work if a font is used which supports them.

The following table shows a limited, but still representative pool of Gregorian ligatures, together with the code fragments that produce the ligatures. The table is based on the extended neumes table of the 2nd volume of the Antiphonale Romanum (Liber Hymnarius), published 1983 by the monks of Solesmes. The first column gives the name of the ligature, with the main form in boldface and the liquescent forms in italics. The third column shows the code fragment that produces this ligature, using `g`, `a`, and `b` as example pitches.

Single-note neums

Basic and Liquescent forms | Output | Lilypond code
Punctum |  | `\[ b \]`
|  | `\[ \cavum b \]`
|  | `\[ \linea b \]`
Punctum Auctum Ascendens |  | `\[ \auctum \ascendens b \]`
Punctum Auctum Descendens |  | `\[ \auctum \descendens b \]`
Punctum inclinatum |  | `\[ \inclinatum b \]`
Punctum Inclinatum Auctum |  | `\[ \inclinatum \auctum b \]`
Punctum Inclinatum Parvum |  | `\[ \inclinatum \deminutum b \]`
Virga |  |

Two-note ligatures

Clivis vel Flexa |  | `\[ b \flexa g \]`
Clivis Aucta Descendens |  | `\[ b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]`
Clivis Aucta Ascendens |  | `\[ b \flexa \auctum \ascendens g \]`
Cephalicus |  | `\[ b \flexa \deminutum g \]`
Podatus/Pes |  | `\[ g \pes b \]`
Pes Auctus Descendens |  | `\[ g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]`
Pes Auctus Ascendens |  | `\[ g \pes \auctum \ascendens b \]`
Epiphonus |  | `\[ g \pes \deminutum b \]`
Pes Initio Debilis |  | `\[ \deminutum g \pes b \]`
Pes Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis |  | `\[ \deminutum g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]`

Multi-note ligatures

Torculus |  | `\[ a \pes b \flexa g \]`
Torculus Auctus Descendens |  | `\[ a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]`
Torculus Deminutus |  | `\[ a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]`
Torculus Initio Debilis |  | `\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa g \]`
Torculus Auctus Descendens Initio Debilis |  | `\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \auctum \descendens g \]`
Torculus Deminutus Initio Debilis |  | `\[ \deminutum a \pes b \flexa \deminutum g \]`
Porrectus |  | `\[ a \flexa g \pes b \]`
Porrectus Auctus Descendens |  | `\[ a \flexa g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]`
Porrectus Deminutus |  | `\[ a \flexa g \pes \deminutum b \]`
Climacus |  | `\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum g \]`
Climacus Auctus |  | `\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \auctum g \]`
Climacus Deminutus |  | `\[ \virga b \inclinatum a \inclinatum \deminutum g \]`
Scandicus |  | `\[ g \pes a \virga b \]`
Scandicus Auctus Descendens |  | `\[ g \pes a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]`
Scandicus Deminutus |  | `\[ g \pes a \pes \deminutum b \]`

Special Signs

Quilisma |  | `\[ g \pes \quilisma a \pes b \]`
Quilisma Pes Auctus Descendens |  | `\[ \quilisma g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]`
Oriscus |  | `\[ \oriscus b \]`
Pes Quassus |  | `\[ \oriscus g \pes \virga b \]`
Pes Quassus Auctus Descendens |  | `\[ \oriscus g \pes \auctum \descendens b \]`
Salicus |  | `\[ g \oriscus a \pes \virga b \]`
Salicus Auctus Descendens |  | `\[ g \oriscus a \pes \auctum \descendens b \]`
(Apo)stropha |  | `\[ \stropha b \]`
Stropha Aucta |  | `\[ \stropha \auctum b \]`
Bistropha |  | `\[ \stropha b \stropha b \]`
Tristropha |  | `\[ \stropha b \stropha b \stropha b \]`
Trigonus |  | `\[ \stropha b \stropha b \stropha a \]`

#### Predefined commands

The following head prefixes are supported: `\virga`, `\stropha`, `\inclinatum`, `\auctum`, `\descendens`, `\ascendens`, `\oriscus`, `\quilisma`, `\deminutum`, `\cavum`, `\linea`.

Head prefixes can be accumulated, though restrictions apply. For example, either `\descendens` or `\ascendens` can be applied to a head, but not both to the same head.

Two adjacent heads can be tied together with the `\pes` and `\flexa` infix commands for a rising and falling line of melody, respectively.

Use the unary music function `\augmentum` to add augmentum dots.

#### See also

TODO: nothing here yet ...

#### Known issues and warnings

When an `\augmentum` dot appears at the end of the last staff within a ligature, it is sometimes vertically placed wrong. As a workaround, add an additional skip note (e.g. `s8`) as last note of the staff.

`\augmentum` should be implemented as a head prefix rather than a unary music function, such that `\augmentum` can be intermixed with head prefixes in arbitrary order.

### 2.8.5 Working with ancient music—scenarios and solutions

Working with ancient music frequently involves particular tasks which differ considerably from the modern notation for which Lilypond is designed. In the rest of this section, a number of typical scenarios are outlined, with suggestions of solutions. These involve:

- how to make incipits (i.e. prefatory material to indicate what the original has looked like) to modern transcriptions of mensural music;
- how to achieve the Mensurstriche layout frequently used for modern transcriptions of polyphonic music;
- how to transcribe Gregorian chant in modern notation;
- how to generate both ancient and modern notation from the same source.

#### Incipits

TBC

#### See also

#### Mensurstriche layout

Mensurstriche (‘mensuration lines’) is the accepted term for bar lines that are drawn between the staves of a system but not through the staves themselves. It is a common way to preserve the rhythmic appearance of the original, i.e. not having to break syncopated notes at bar lines, while still providing the orientation aids that bar lines give.

The mensurstriche-layout where the bar lines do not show on the staves but between staves can be achieved with a `StaffGroup` instead of a `ChoirStaff`. The bar line on staves is blanked out by setting the `transparent` property.

>     global = {
>       \override Staff.BarLine #'transparent = ##t
>       s1 s
>       % the final bar line is not interrupted
>       \revert Staff.BarLine #'transparent
>       \bar "|."
>     }
>     \new StaffGroup \relative c'' {
>       <<
>         \new Staff { << \global { c1 c } >> }
>         \new Staff { << \global { c c } >> }
>       >>
>     }

#### See also

#### Transcribing Gregorian chant

Gregorian chant can be transcribed into modern notation with a number of simple tweaks.

Stems. Stems can be left out altogether by `\remove`-ing the `Stem_engraver` from the Voice context:

>     \layout {
>       ...
>       \context {
>         \Voice
>           \remove "Stem_engraver"
>       }
>     }

However, in some transcription styles, stems are used occasionally, for example to indicate the transition from a single-tone recitative to a fixed melodic gesture. In these cases, one can use either `\override Stem #'transparent = ##t` or `\override Stem #'length = #0` instead, and restore the stem when needed with the corresponding `\once \override Stem #'transparent = ##f` (see example below).

Timing. For unmetered chant, there are several alternatives.

The Time_signature_engraver can be removed from the Staff context without any negative side effects. The alternative, to make it transparent, will leave an empty space in the score, since the invisible signature will still take up space.

In many cases, `\set Score.timing = ##f` will give good results. Another alternative is to use \`\CadenzaOn` and `\CadenzaOff`.

To remove the barlines, the radical approach is to `\remove` the Bar_engraver from the Staff context. Again, one may want to use `\override BarLine #'transparent = ##t` instead, if an occasional barline is wanted.

A common type of transcription is recitativic chant where the repeated notes are indicated with a single breve. The text to the recitation tone can be dealt with in two different ways: either set as a single, left-aligned syllable:

    \include "gregorian.ly"
    chant = \relative c' {
      \clef "G_8"
      c\breve c4 b4 a c2 c4  \divisioMaior
      c\breve c4 c f, f \finalis
    }

    verba = \lyricmode {
      \once \override LyricText #'self-alignment-X = #-1
      "Noctem quietam et" fi -- nem per -- fec -- tum
      \once \override LyricText #'self-alignment-X = #-1
      "concedat nobis Dominus" om -- ni -- po -- tens.
    }
    \score {
      \new Staff <<
      \new Voice = "melody" \chant
      \new Lyrics = "one" \lyricsto melody \verba
      >>
      \layout {
        \context {
          \Staff
          \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
          \remove "Bar_engraver"
          \override Stem #'transparent = ##t
        }
      }
    }

This works fine, as long as the text doesn’t span a line break. If that is the case, an alternative is to add hidden notes to the score, here in combination with changing stem visibility:

    \include "gregorian.ly"
    chant = \relative c' {
      \clef "G_8"
      \set Score.timing = ##f
      c\breve \override NoteHead #'transparent = ##t  c c c c c
      \revert NoteHead #'transparent
      \override Stem #'transparent = ##f \stemUp c4 b4 a
      \override Stem #'transparent = ##t c2 c4  \divisioMaior
      c\breve \override NoteHead #'transparent = ##t c c c c c c c
      \revert NoteHead #'transparent c4 c f, f \finalis
    }

    verba = \lyricmode {
      No -- ctem qui -- e -- tam et fi -- nem per -- fec -- tum
      con -- ce -- dat no -- bis Do -- mi -- nus om -- ni -- po -- tens.
    }

    \score {
      \new Staff <<
        \new Voice = "melody" \chant
        \new Lyrics \lyricsto "melody" \verba
      >>
      \layout {
        \context {
          \Staff
          \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
          \override BarLine #'transparent = ##t
          \override Stem #'transparent = ##t
        }
      }
    }

Another common situation is transcription of neumatic or melismatic chants, i.e. chants with a varying number of notes to each syllable. In this case, one would want to set the syllable groups clearly apart, usually also the subdivisions of a longer melisma. One way to achieve this is to use a fixed `\time`, e.g. 1/4, and let each syllable or note group fill one of these measures, with the help of tuplets or shorter durations. If the barlines and all other rhythmical indications are made transparent, and the space around the barlines is increased, this will give a fairly good representation in modern notation of the original.

To avoid that syllables of different width (such as “-ri” and “-rum”) spread the syllable note groups unevenly apart, the `#'X-extent` property of the `LyricText` object may be set to a fixed value. Another, more cumbersome way would be to add the syllables as `\markup` elements. If further adjustments are necessary, this can be easily done with `s` ‘notes’.

>     spiritus = \relative c' {
>       \time 1/4
>       \override Lyrics.LyricText #'X-extent  = #'(0 . 3)
>       d4 \times 2/3 { f8 a g } g a a4 g f8 e
>       d4 f8 g g8 d f g a g f4 g8 a a4  s
>       \times 2/3 { g8 f d } e f g a g4
>     }

>     spirLyr = \lyricmode {
>       Spi -- ri -- _ _ tus  _ Do -- mi -- ni  _ re -- ple -- _ vit _
>       or -- _ bem _  ter -- ra -- _ rum, al -- _ _ le -- _ lu
>       -- _ ia.
>     }
>     \score {
>       \new Staff <<
>         \new Voice = "chant" \spiritus
>         \new Lyrics = "one" \lyricsto "chant" \spirLyr
>       >>
>       \layout {
>         \context {
>           \Staff
>           \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
>           \override BarLine #'X-extent = #'(-1 . 1)
>           \override Stem #'transparent = ##t
>           \override Beam #'transparent = ##t
>           \override BarLine #'transparent = ##t
>           \override TupletNumber #'transparent = ##t
>         }
>       }
>     }

#### See also

#### Ancient and modern from one source

TBC

#### See also

#### Editorial markings

TBC

#### See also

## 2.9 World music

The purpose of this section is to highlight musical notation issues that are relevant to traditions outside the Western tradition.

### 2.9.1 Arabic music

This section highlights issues that are relevant to notating Arabic music.

#### References for Arabic music

Arabic music so far has been mainly an oral tradition. When music is transcribed, it is usually in a sketch format, on which performers are expected to improvise significantly. Increasingly, Western notation, with a few variations, is adopted in order to communicate and preserve Arabic music.

Some elements of Western musical notation such as the transcription of chords or independent parts, are not required to typeset the more traditional Arabic pieces. There are however some different issues, such as the need to indicate medium intervals that are somewhere between a semi-tone and a tone, in addition to the minor and major intervals that are used in Western music. There is also the need to group and indicate a large number of different maqams (modes) that are part of Arabic music.

In general, Arabic music notation does not attempt to precisely indicate microtonal elements that are present in musical practice.

Several issues that are relevant to Arabic music are covered elsewhere:

- Note names and accidentals (including quarter tones) can be tailored as discussed in Note names in other languages.
- Additional key signatures can also be tailored as described in Key signature.
- Complex time signatures may require that notes be grouped manually as described in Manual beams.
- Takasim which are rhythmically free improvisations may be written down omitting bar lines as described in Unmetered music.

#### See also

Notation Reference: Note names in other languages, Key signature, Manual beams.

Snippets: World music.

#### Arabic note names

The more traditional Arabic note names can be quite long and are not suitable for the purpose of music writing, so they are not used. English note names are not very familiar in Arabic music education, so Italian or Solfege note names (`do, re, mi, fa, sol, la, si`) are used instead. Modifiers (accidentals) can also be used, as discussed in Note names in other languages.

For example, this is how the Arabic rast scale can be notated:

>     \include "arabic.ly"
>     \relative do' {
>       do re misb fa sol la sisb do sisb la sol fa misb re do
>     }

The symbol for semi-flat does not match the symbol which is used in Arabic notation. The `\dwn` symbol defined in `arabic.ly` may be used preceding a flat symbol as a work around if it is important to use the specific Arabic semi-flat symbol. The appearance of the semi-flat symbol in the key signature cannot be altered by using this method.

>     \include "arabic.ly"
>     \relative do' {
>       \set Staff.extraNatural = ##f
>       dod dob dosd \dwn dob dobsb dodsd do do
>     }

#### See also

Notation Reference: Note names in other languages.

Snippets: World music.

#### Arabic key signatures

In addition to the minor and major key signatures, the following key signatures are defined in `arabic.ly`: bayati, rast, sikah, iraq, and kurd. These key signatures define a small number of maqam groups rather than the large number of maqams that are in common use.

In general, a maqam uses the key signature of its group, or a neighbouring group, and varying accidentals are marked throughout the music.

For example to indicate the key signature of a maqam muhayer piece:

>     \key re \bayati

Here re is the default pitch of the muhayer maqam, and bayati is the name of the base maqam in the group.

While the key signature indicates the group, it is common for the title to indicate the more specific maqam, so in this example, the name of maqam muhayer should appear in the title.

Other maqams in the same bayati group, as shown in the table below: (bayati, hussaini, saba, and ushaq) can be indicated in the same way. These are all variations of the base and most common maqam in the group, which is bayati. They usually differ from the base maqam in their upper tetrachords, or certain flow details that don’t change their fundamental nature, as siblings.

The other maqam in the same group (Nawa) is related to bayati by modulation which is indicated in the table in parenthesis for those maqams that are modulations of their base maqam. Arabic maqams admit of only limited modulations, due to the nature of Arabic musical instruments. Nawa can be indicated as follows:

>     \key sol \bayati

In Arabic music, the same term such as bayati that is used to indicate a maqam group, is also a maqam which is usually the most important in the group, and can also be thought of as a base maqam.

Here is one suggested grouping that maps the more common maqams to key signatures:

maqam group | key | finalis | Other maqmas in group (finalis)
--- | --- | --- | ---
ajam | major | sib | jaharka (fa)
bayati | bayati | re | hussaini, muhayer, saba, ushaq, nawa (sol)
hijaz | kurd | re | shahnaz, shad arban (sol), hijazkar (do)
iraq | iraq | sisb | -
kurd | kurd | re | hijazkar kurd (do)
nahawand | minor | do | busalik (re), farah faza (sol)
nakriz | minor | do | nawa athar, hisar (re)
rast | rast | do | mahur, yakah (sol)
sikah | sikah | misb | huzam

#### Selected Snippets

Non-traditional key signatures

The commonly used `\key` command sets the `keySignature` property, in the `Staff` context.

To create non-standard key signatures, set this property directly. The format of this command is a list:

`\set Staff.keySignature = #`(((octave . step) . alter) ((octave . step) . alter) ...)` where, for each element in the list, `octave` specifies the octave (0 being the octave from middle C to the B above), `step` specifies the note within the octave (0 means C and 6 means B), and `alter` is `,SHARP ,FLAT ,DOUBLE-SHARP` etc. (Note the leading comma.) The accidentals in the key signature will appear in the reverse order to that in which they are specified.

Alternatively, for each item in the list, using the more concise format `(step . alter)` specifies that the same alteration should hold in all octaves.

For microtonal scales where a "sharp" is not 100 cents, `alter` refers to the alteration as a proportion of a 200-cent whole tone.

Here is an example of a possible key signature for generating a whole-tone scale:

>     \relative c' {
>       \set Staff.keySignature = #`(((0 . 3) . ,SHARP)
>                                    ((0 . 5) . ,FLAT)
>                                    ((0 . 6) . ,FLAT))
>       c4 d e fis
>       aes4 bes c2
>     }

#### See also

Notation Reference: Key signature.

Learning Manual: Accidentals and key signatures.

Internals Reference: KeySignature.

Snippets: World music, Pitches.

#### Arabic time signatures

Some Arabic and Turkish music classical forms such as Semai use unusual time signatures such as 10/8. This may lead to an automatic grouping of notes that is quite different from existing typeset music, where notes may not be grouped on the beat, but in a manner that is difficult to match by adjusting automatic beaming. You can override this by switching off automatic beaming and beaming the notes manually. Where matching existing typeset music is not an issue, you may still want to adjust the beaming behaviour and/or use compound time signatures.

#### Selected Snippets

Compound time signatures

Odd 20th century time signatures (such as "5/8") can often be played as compound time signatures (e.g. "3/8 + 2/8"), which combine two or more inequal metrics. LilyPond can make such music quite easy to read and play, by explicitly printing the compound time signatures and adapting the automatic beaming behavior. (Graphic measure grouping indications can also be added; see the appropriate snippet in this database.)

>     #(define ((compound-time one two num) grob)
>       (grob-interpret-markup grob
>         (markup #:override '(baseline-skip . 0) #:number
>           (#:line (
>               (#:column (one num))
>               #:vcenter "+"
>               (#:column (two num)))))))

>     \relative c' {
>       \override Staff.TimeSignature #'stencil = #(compound-time "2" "3" "8")
>       \time 5/8
>       #(override-auto-beam-setting '(end 1 8 5 8) 1 4)
>       c8 d e fis gis
>       c8 fis, gis e d
>       c8 d e4 gis8
>     }

Arabic improvisation

For improvisations or taqasim which are temporarily free, the time signature can be omitted and `\cadenzaOn` can be used. Adjusting the accidental style might be required, since the absence of bar lines will cause the accidental to be marked only once. Here is an example of what could be the start of a hijaz improvisation:

>     \include "arabic.ly"

>     \relative sol' {
>       \key re \kurd
>       #(set-accidental-style 'forget)
>       \cadenzaOn
>       sol4 sol sol sol fad mib sol1 fad8 mib re4. r8 mib1 fad sol
>     }

#### See also

Notation Reference: Manual beams, Automatic beams, Unmetered music, Automatic accidentals, Setting automatic beam behavior, Time signature.

Snippets: World music.

#### Arabic music example

Here is a template that also uses the start of a Turkish Semai that is familiar in Arabic music education in order to illustrate some of the peculiarities of Arabic music notation, such as medium intervals and unusual modes that are discussed in this section.

>     \include "arabic.ly"
>     \score {
>       \relative re' {
>         \set Staff.extraNatural = ##f
>         \set Staff.autoBeaming = ##f
>         \key re \bayati
>         \time 10/8

>         re4 re'8 re16 [misb re do] sisb [la sisb do] re4 r8
>         re16 [misb do re] sisb [do] la [sisb sol8] la [sisb] do [re] misb
>         fa4 fa16 [misb] misb8. [re16] re8 [misb] re  [do] sisb
>         do4 sisb8 misb16 [re do sisb] la [do sisb la] la4 r8
>       }
>       \header {
>         title = "Semai Muhayer"
>         composer = "Jamil Bek"
>       }
>     }

#### See also

Snippets: World music

#### Further reading

1. The music of the Arabs by Habib Hassan Touma [Amadeus Press, 1996], contains a discussion of maqams and their method of groupings.

   There are also various web sites that explain maqams and some provide audio examples such as :

   - http://www.maqamworld.com/
   - http://www.turath.org/

   There are some variations in the details of how maqams are grouped, despite agreement on the criteria of grouping maqams that are related through common lower tetra chords, or through modulation.

2. There is not a complete consistency, sometimes even in the same text on how key signatures for particular maqams should be specified. It is common, however, to use a key signature per group, rather than a different key signature for each different maqam.

   Oud methods by the following authors, contain examples of mainly Turkish and Arabic compositions.

   - Charbel Rouhana
   - George Farah
   - Ibrahim Ali Darwish Al-masri

# 3. General input and output

This section deals with general LilyPond input and output issues, rather than specific notation.

## 3.1 Input structure

The main format of input for LilyPond are text files. By convention, these files end with `.ly`.

### 3.1.1 Structure of a score

A `\score` block must contain a single music expression delimited by curly brackets:

>     \score {
>     ...
>     }

Note: There must be only one outer music expression in a `score` block, and it must be surrounded by curly brackets.

This single music expression may be of any size, and may contain other music expressions to any complexity. All of these examples are music expressions:

>     { c'4 c' c' c' }

>     {
>       { c'4 c' c' c'}
>       { d'4 d' d' d'}
>     }

>     <<
>       \new Staff { c'4 c' c' c' }
>       \new Staff { d'4 d' d' d' }
>     >>

>     {
>       \new GrandStaff <<
>         \new StaffGroup <<
>           \new Staff { \flute }
>           \new Staff { \oboe }
>         >>
>         \new StaffGroup <<
>           \new Staff { \violinI }
>           \new Staff { \violinII }
>         >>
>       >>
>     }

Comments are one exception to this general rule. (For others see File structure.) Both single-line comments and comments delimited by `%{ .. %}` may be placed anywhere within an input file. They may be placed inside or outside a `\score` block, and inside or outside the single music expression within a `\score` block.

#### See also

Learning Manual: Working on input files, Music expressions explained, Score is a (single) compound musical expression.

### 3.1.2 Multiple scores in a book

A document may contain multiple pieces of music and text. Examples of these are an etude book, or an orchestral part with multiple movements. Each movement is entered with a `\score` block,

>     \score {
>       ..music..
>     }

and texts are entered with a `\markup` block,

>     \markup {
>       ..text..
>     }

All the movements and texts which appear in the same `.ly` file will normally be typeset in the form of a single output file.

>     \score {
>       ..
>     }
>     \markup {
>       ..
>     }
>     \score {
>       ..
>     }

However, if you want multiple output files from the same `.ly` file, then you can add multiple `\book` blocks, where each such `\book` block will result in a separate output. If you do not specify any `\book` block in the file, LilyPond will implicitly treat the full file as a single `\book` block, see File structure. One important exception is within lilypond-book documents, where you explicitly have to add a `\book` block, otherwise only the first `\score` or `\markup` will appear in the output.

The header for each piece of music can be put inside the `\score` block. The `piece` name from the header will be printed before each movement. The title for the entire book can be put inside the `\book`, but if it is not present, the `\header` which is at the top of the file is inserted.

>     \header {
>       title = "Eight miniatures"
>       composer = "Igor Stravinsky"
>     }
>     \score {
>       …
>       \header { piece = "Romanze" }
>     }
>     \markup {
>        ..text of second verse..
>     }
>     \markup {
>        ..text of third verse..
>     }
>     \score {
>       …
>       \header { piece = "Menuetto" }
>     }

Pieces of music may be grouped into book parts using `\bookpart` blocks. Book parts are separated by a page break, and can start with a title, like the book itself, by specifying a `\header` block.

>     \bookpart {
>       \header {
>         title = "Book title"
>         subtitle = "First part"
>       }
>       \score { … }
>       …
>     }
>     \bookpart {
>       \header {
>         subtitle = "Second part"
>       }
>       \score { … }
>       …
>     }

### 3.1.3 File structure

A `.ly` file may contain any number of toplevel expressions, where a toplevel expression is one of the following:

- An output definition, such as `\paper`, `\midi`, and `\layout`. Such a definition at the toplevel changes the default book-wide settings. If more than one such definition of the same type is entered at the top level any definitions in the later expressions have precedence.
- A direct scheme expression, such as `#(set-default-paper-size "a7" 'landscape)` or `#(ly:set-option 'point-and-click #f)`.
- A `\header` block. This sets the global header block. This is the block containing the definitions for book-wide settings, like composer, title, etc.
- A `\score` block. This score will be collected with other toplevel scores, and combined as a single `\book`. This behavior can be changed by setting the variable `toplevel-score-handler` at toplevel. The default handler is defined in the init file ‘`../scm/lily.scm`’.
- A `\book` block logically combines multiple movements (i.e., multiple `\score` blocks) in one document. If there are a number of `\score`s, one output file will be created for each `\book` block, in which all corresponding movements are concatenated. The only reason to explicitly specify `\book` blocks in a `.ly` file is if you wish to create multiple output files from a single input file. One exception is within lilypond-book documents, where you explicitly have to add a `\book` block if you want more than a single `\score` or `\markup` in the same example. This behavior can be changed by setting the variable `toplevel-book-handler` at toplevel. The default handler is defined in the init file ‘`../scm/lily.scm`’.
- A `\bookpart` block. A book may be divided into several parts, using `\bookpart` blocks, in order to ease the page breaking, or to use different `\paper` settings in different parts.
- A compound music expression, such as

  >     { c'4 d' e'2 }

  This will add the piece in a `\score` and format it in a single book together with all other toplevel `\score`s and music expressions. In other words, a file containing only the above music expression will be translated into

  >     \book {
  >       \score {
  >         \new Staff {
  >           \new Voice {
  >             { c'4 d' e'2 }
  >           }
  >         }
  >       }
  >     	\layout { }
  >     	\header { }
  >     }

  This behavior can be changed by setting the variable `toplevel-music-handler` at toplevel. The default handler is defined in the init file ‘`../scm/lily.scm`’.

- A markup text, a verse for example

  >     \markup {
  >        2.  The first line verse two.
  >     }

  Markup texts are rendered above, between or below the scores or music expressions, wherever they appear.

- A variable, such as

  >     foo = { c4 d e d }

  This can be used later on in the file by entering `\foo`. The name of a variable should have alphabetic characters only; no numbers, underscores or dashes.

The following example shows three things that may be entered at toplevel

>     \layout {
>       % Don't justify the output
>       ragged-right = ##t
>     }

>     \header {
>        title = "Do-re-mi"
>     }

>     { c'4 d' e2 }

At any point in a file, any of the following lexical instructions can be entered:

- `\version`
- `\include`
- `\sourcefilename`
- `\sourcefileline`
- A single-line comment, introduced by a leading `%` sign.
- A multi-line comment delimited by `%{ .. %}`.

#### See also

Learning Manual: How LilyPond input files work.

## 3.2 Titles and headers

Almost all printed music includes a title and the composer’s name; some pieces include a lot more information.

### 3.2.1 Creating titles

Titles are created for each `\score` block, as well as for the full input file (or `\book` block) and book parts (created by `\bookpart` blocks).

The contents of the titles are taken from the `\header` blocks. The header block for a book supports the following

`dedication`

  The dedicatee of the music, centered at the top of the first page.

`title`

  The title of the music, centered just below the dedication.

`subtitle`

  Subtitle, centered below the title.

`subsubtitle`

  Subsubtitle, centered below the subtitle.

`poet`

  Name of the poet, flush-left below the subsubtitle.

`instrument`

  Name of the instrument, centered below the subsubtitle. Also centered at the top of pages (other than the first page).

`composer`

  Name of the composer, flush-right below the subsubtitle.

`meter`

  Meter string, flush-left below the poet.

`arranger`

  Name of the arranger, flush-right below the composer.

`piece`

  Name of the piece, flush-left below the meter.

`opus`

  Name of the opus, flush-right below the arranger.

`breakbefore`

  This forces the title to start on a new page (set to ##t or ##f).

`copyright`

  Copyright notice, centered at the bottom of the first page. To insert the copyright symbol, see Text encoding.

`tagline`

  Centered at the bottom of the last page.

Here is a demonstration of the fields available. Note that you may use any Formatting text, commands in the header.

    \paper {
      line-width = 9.0\cm
      paper-height = 10.0\cm
    }

    \book {
      \header {
        dedication = "dedicated to me"
        title = \markup \center-column { "Title first line" "Title second line,
    longer" }
        subtitle = "the subtitle,"
        subsubtitle = #(string-append "subsubtitle LilyPond version "
    (lilypond-version))
        poet = "Poet"
        composer =  \markup \center-column { "composer" \small "(1847-1973)" }
        texttranslator = "Text Translator"
        meter = \markup { \teeny "m" \tiny "e" \normalsize "t" \large "e" \huge
    "r" }
        arranger = \markup { \fontsize #8.5 "a" \fontsize #2.5 "r" \fontsize
    #-2.5 "r" \fontsize #-5.3 "a" \fontsize #7.5 "nger" }
        instrument = \markup \bold \italic "instrument"
        piece = "Piece"
      }

      \score {
        { c'1 }
        \header {
          piece = "piece1"
          opus = "opus1"
        }
      }
      \markup {
          and now...
      }
      \score {
        { c'1 }
        \header {
          piece = "piece2"
          opus = "opus2"
        }
      }
    }

As demonstrated before, you can use multiple `\header` blocks. When same fields appear in different blocks, the latter is used. Here is a short example.

>     \header {
>       composer = "Composer"
>     }
>     \header {
>       piece = "Piece"
>     }
>     \score {
>       \new Staff { c'4 }
>       \header {
>         piece = "New piece"  % overwrite previous one
>       }
>     }

If you define the `\header` inside the `\score` block, then normally only the `piece` and `opus` headers will be printed. Note that the music expression must come before the `\header`.

    \score {
      { c'4 }
      \header {
        title = "title"  % not printed
        piece = "piece"
        opus = "opus"
      }
    }

You may change this behavior (and print all the headers when defining `\header` inside `\score`) by using

>     \paper{
>       print-all-headers = ##t
>     }

The default footer is empty, except for the first page, where the `copyright` field from `\header` is inserted, and the last page, where `tagline` from `\header` is added. The default tagline is “Music engraving by LilyPond (version)”.2

Headers may be completely removed by setting them to false.

>     \header {
>       tagline = ##f
>       composer = ##f
>     }

### 3.2.2 Custom titles

A more advanced option is to change the definitions of the following variables in the `\paper` block. The init file ‘`../ly/titling-init.ly`’ lists the default layout.

`bookTitleMarkup`

  This is the title added at the top of the entire output document. Typically, it has the composer and the title of the piece

`scoreTitleMarkup`

  This is the title put over a `\score` block. Typically, it has the name of the movement (`piece` field).

`oddHeaderMarkup`

  This is the page header for odd-numbered pages.

`evenHeaderMarkup`

  This is the page header for even-numbered pages. If unspecified, the odd header is used instead.

  By default, headers are defined such that the page number is on the outside edge, and the instrument is centered.

`oddFooterMarkup`

  This is the page footer for odd-numbered pages.

`evenFooterMarkup`

  This is the page footer for even-numbered pages. If unspecified, the odd header is used instead.

  By default, the footer has the copyright notice on the first, and the tagline on the last page.

The following definition will put the title flush left, and the composer flush right on a single line.

    \paper {
      bookTitleMarkup = \markup {
       \fill-line {
         \fromproperty #'header:title
         \fromproperty #'header:composer
       }
      }
    }

### 3.2.3 Reference to page numbers

A particular place of a score can be marked using the `\label` command, either at top-level or inside music. This label can then be referred to in a markup, to get the number of the page where the marked point is placed, using the `\page-ref` markup command.

    \header { tagline = ##f }
    \book {
      \label #'firstScore
      \score {
        {
          c'1
          \pageBreak \mark A \label #'markA
          c'
        }
      }

      \markup { The first score begins on page \page-ref #'firstScore "0" "?" }
      \markup { Mark A is on page \page-ref #'markA "0" "?" }
    }

The `\page-ref` markup command takes three arguments:

1. the label, a scheme symbol, eg. `#'firstScore`;
2. a markup that will be used as a gauge to estimate the dimensions of the markup;
3. a markup that will be used in place of the page number if the label is not known;

The reason why a gauge is needed is that, at the time markups are interpreted, the page breaking has not yet occurred, so the page numbers are not yet known. To work around this issue, the actual markup interpretation is delayed to a later time; however, the dimensions of the markup have to be known before, so a gauge is used to decide these dimensions. If the book has between 10 and 99 pages, it may be "00", ie. a two digit number.

#### Predefined commands

`\label`, `\page-ref`.

### 3.2.4 Table of contents

A table of contents is included using the `\markuplines \table-of-contents` command. The elements which should appear in the table of contents are entered with the `\tocItem` command, which may be used either at top-level, or inside a music expression.

    \markuplines \table-of-contents
    \pageBreak

    \tocItem \markup "First score"
    \score {
      {
        c'  % ...
        \tocItem \markup "Some particular point in the first score"
        d'  % ...
      }
    }

    \tocItem \markup "Second score"
    \score {
      {
        e' % ...
      }
    }

The markups which are used to format the table of contents are defined in the `\paper` block. The default ones are `tocTitleMarkup`, for formatting the title of the table, and `tocItemMarkup`, for formatting the toc elements, composed of the element title and page number. These variables may be changed by the user:

    \paper {
      %% Translate the toc title into French:
      tocTitleMarkup = \markup \huge \column {
        \fill-line { \null "Table des matières" \null }
        \hspace #1
      }
      %% use larger font size
      tocItemMarkup = \markup \large \fill-line {
        \fromproperty #'toc:text \fromproperty #'toc:page
      }
    }

Note how the toc element text and page number are referred to in the `tocItemMarkup` definition.

New commands and markups may also be defined to build more elaborated table of contents:

- first, define a new markup variable in the `\paper` block
- then, define a music function which aims at adding a toc element using this markup paper variable.

In the following example, a new style is defined for entering act names in the table of contents of an opera:

    \paper {
      tocActMarkup = \markup \large \column {
        \hspace #1
        \fill-line { \null \italic \fromproperty #'toc:text \null }
        \hspace #1
      }
    }

    tocAct =
    #(define-music-function (parser location text) (markup?)
       (add-toc-item! 'tocActMarkup text))

#### See also

Init files: ‘`../ly/toc-init.ly`’.

#### Predefined commands

`\table-of-contents`, `\tocItem`.

## 3.3 Working with input files

### 3.3.1 Including LilyPond files

A large project may be split up into separate files. To refer to another file, use

>     \include "otherfile.ly"

The line `\include "otherfile.ly"` is equivalent to pasting the contents of ‘`otherfile.ly`’ into the current file at the place where the `\include` appears. For example, in a large project you might write separate files for each instrument part and create a “full score” file which brings together the individual instrument files. Normally the included file will define a number of variables which then become available for use in the full score file. Tagged sections can be marked in included files to assist in making them usable in different places in a score, see Different editions from one source.

Files in the current working directory may be referenced by specifying just the file name after the `\include` command. Files in other locations may be included by giving either a full path reference or a relative path reference (but use the UNIX forward slash, /, rather than the DOS/Windows back slash, \, as the directory separator.) For example, if ‘`stuff.ly`’ is located one directory higher than the current working directory, use

>     \include "../stuff.ly"

or if the included orchestral parts files are all located in a subdirectory called ‘`parts`’ within the current directory, use

>     \include "parts/VI.ly"
>     \include "parts/VII.ly"
>     ... etc

Files which are to be included can also contain `\include` statements of their own. By default, these second-level `\include` statements are not interpreted until they have been brought into the main file, so the file names they specify must all be relative to the directory containing the main file, not the directory containing the included file. However, this behavior can be changed by passing the option `-drelative-includes` option at the command line (or by adding `#(ly:set-option 'relative-includes #t)` at the top of the main input file). With `relative-includes` set, the path for each `\include` command will be taken relative to the file containing that command. This behavior is recommended and it will become the default behavior in a future version of lilypond.

Files can also be included from a directory in a search path specified as an option when invoking LilyPond from the command line. The included files are then specified using just their file name. For example, to compile ‘`main.ly`’ which includes files located in a subdirectory called ‘`parts`’ by this method, cd to the directory containing ‘`main.ly`’ and enter

>     lilypond --include=parts main.ly

and in main.ly write

>     \include "VI.ly"
>     \include "VII.ly"
>     ... etc

Files which are to be included in many scores may be placed in the LilyPond directory ‘`../ly`’. (The location of this directory is installation-dependent - see Other sources of information). These files can then be included simply by naming them on an `\include` statement. This is how the language-dependent files like ‘`english.ly`’ are included.

LilyPond includes a number of files by default when you start the program. These includes are not apparent to the user, but the files may be identified by running `lilypond --verbose` from the command line. This will display a list of paths and files that LilyPond uses, along with much other information. Alternatively, the more important of these files are discussed in Other sources of information. These files may be edited, but changes to them will be lost on installing a new version of LilyPond.

Some simple examples of using `\include` are shown in Scores and parts.

#### See also

Learning Manual: Other sources of information, Scores and parts.

#### Known issues and warnings

If an included file is given a name which is the same as one in LilyPond’s installation files, LilyPond’s file from the installation files takes precedence.

### 3.3.2 Different editions from one source

Several mechanisms are available to facilitate the generation of different versions of a score from the same music source. Variables are perhaps most useful for combining lengthy sections of music and/or annotation in various ways, while tags are more useful for selecting one from several alternative shorter sections of music. Whichever method is used, separating the notation from the structure of the score will make it easier to change the structure while leaving the notation untouched.

#### Using variables

If sections of the music are defined in variables they can be reused in different parts of the score, see pieces with variables Organizing pieces with variables. For example, an a cappella vocal score frequently includes a piano reduction of the parts for rehearsal purposes which is identical to the vocal music, so the music need be entered only once. Music from two variables may be combined on one staff, see Automatic part combining. Here is an example:

>     sopranoMusic = \relative c'' { a4 b c b8( a)}
>     altoMusic = \relative g' { e4 e e f }
>     tenorMusic = \relative c' { c4 b e d8( c) }
>     bassMusic = \relative c' { a4 gis a d, }
>     allLyrics = \lyricmode {King of glo -- ry }
>     <<
>       \new Staff = "Soprano" \sopranoMusic
>       \new Lyrics \allLyrics
>       \new Staff = "Alto" \altoMusic
>       \new Lyrics \allLyrics
>       \new Staff = "Tenor" {
>         \clef "treble_8"
>         \tenorMusic
>       }
>       \new Lyrics \allLyrics
>       \new Staff = "Bass" {
>         \clef "bass"
>         \bassMusic
>       }
>       \new Lyrics \allLyrics
>       \new PianoStaff <<
>         \new Staff = "RH" {
>           \set Staff.printPartCombineTexts = ##f
>           \partcombine
>           \sopranoMusic
>           \altoMusic
>         }
>         \new Staff = "LH" {
>           \set Staff.printPartCombineTexts = ##f
>           \clef "bass"
>           \partcombine
>           \tenorMusic
>           \bassMusic
>         }
>       >>
>     >>

Separate scores showing just the vocal parts or just the piano part can be produced by changing just the structural statements, leaving the musical notation unchanged.

For lengthy scores, the variable definitions may be placed in separate files which are then included, see Including LilyPond files.

#### Using tags

The `\tag #'partA` command marks a music expression with the name partA. Expressions tagged in this way can be selected or filtered out by name later, using either `\keepWithTag #'name` or `\removeWithTag #'name`. The result of applying these filters to tagged music is as follows:

Filter | Result
--- | ---
Tagged music preceded by `\keepWithTag #'name` | Untagged music and music tagged with name is included; music tagged with any other tag name is excluded.
Tagged music preceded by `\removeWithTag #'name` | Untagged music and music tagged with any tag name other than name is included; music tagged with name is excluded.
Tagged music not preceded by either `\keepWithTag` or `\removeWithTag` | All tagged and untagged music is included.

The arguments of the `\tag`, `\keepWithTag` and `\removeWithTag` commands should be a symbol (such as `#'score` or `#'part`), followed by a music expression.

In the following example, we see two versions of a piece of music, one showing trills with the usual notation, and one with trills explicitly expanded:

>     music = \relative g' {
>       g8. c32 d
>       \tag #'trills {d8.\trill }
>       \tag #'expand {\repeat unfold 3 {e32 d} }
>       c32 d
>      }

>     \score {
>       \keepWithTag #'trills \music
>     }
>     \score {
>       \keepWithTag #'expand \music
>     }

Alternatively, it is sometimes easier to exclude sections of music:

>     music = \relative g' {
>       g8. c32 d
>       \tag #'trills {d8.\trill }
>       \tag #'expand {\repeat unfold 3 {e32 d} }
>       c32 d
>      }

>     \score {
>       \removeWithTag #'expand
>       \music
>     }
>     \score {
>       \removeWithTag #'trills
>       \music
>     }

Tagged filtering can be applied to articulations, texts, etc. by prepending

>     -\tag #'your-tag

to an articulation. For example, this would define a note with a conditional fingering indication and a note with a conditional annotation:

>     c1-\tag #'finger ^4
>     c1-\tag #'warn ^"Watch!"

Multiple tags may be placed on expressions with multiple `\tag` entries:

>     music = \relative c'' {
>       \tag #'a \tag #'both { a a a a }
>       \tag #'b \tag #'both { b b b b }
>     }
>     <<
>     \keepWithTag #'a \music
>     \keepWithTag #'b \music
>     \keepWithTag #'both \music
>     >>

Multiple `\removeWithTag` filters may be applied to a single music expression to remove several differently named tagged sections:

>     music = \relative c'' {
>     \tag #'A { a a a a }
>     \tag #'B { b b b b }
>     \tag #'C { c c c c }
>     \tag #'D { d d d d }
>     }
>     {
>     \removeWithTag #'B
>     \removeWithTag #'C
>     \music
>     }

Two or more `\keepWithTag` filters applied to a single music expression will cause all tagged sections to be removed, as the first filter will remove all tagged sections except the one named, and the second filter will remove even that tagged section.

#### See also

Learning Manual: Organizing pieces with variables.

Notation Reference: Automatic part combining, Including LilyPond files.

### 3.3.3 Text encoding

LilyPond uses the character repertoire defined by the Unicode consortium and ISO/IEC 10646. This defines a unique name and code point for the character sets used in virtually all modern languages and many others too. Unicode can be implemented using several different encodings. LilyPond uses the UTF-8 encoding (UTF stands for Unicode Transformation Format) which represents all common Latin characters in one byte, and represents other characters using a variable length format of up to four bytes.

The actual appearance of the characters is determined by the glyphs defined in the particular fonts available - a font defines the mapping of a subset of the Unicode code points to glyphs. LilyPond uses the Pango library to layout and render multi-lingual texts.

Lilypond does not perform any input-encoding conversions. This means that any text, be it title, lyric text, or musical instruction containing non-ASCII characters, must be encoded in UTF-8. The easiest way to enter such text is by using a Unicode-aware editor and saving the file with UTF-8 encoding. Most popular modern editors have UTF-8 support, for example, vim, Emacs, jEdit, and GEdit do. All MS Windows systems later than NT use Unicode as their native character encoding, so even Notepad can edit and save a file in UTF-8 format. A more functional alternative for Windows is BabelPad.

If a LilyPond input file containing a non-ASCII character is not saved in UTF-8 format the error message

>     FT_Get_Glyph_Name () error: invalid argument

will be generated.

Here is an example showing Cyrillic, Hebrew and Portuguese text:

To enter a single character for which the Unicode escape sequence is known but which is not available in the editor being used, use `\char ##xhhhh` within a `\markup` block, where `hhhh` is the hexadecimal code for the character required. For example, `\char ##x03BE` enters the Unicode U+03BE character, which has the Unicode name “Greek Small Letter Xi”. Any Unicode hexadecimal code may be substituted, and if all special characters are entered in this format it is not necessary to save the input file in UTF-8 format. Of course, a font containing all such encoded characters must be installed and available to LilyPond.

The following example shows UTF-8 coded characters being used in four places – in a rehearsal mark, as articulation text, in lyrics and as stand-alone text below the score:

>     \score {
>       \relative c'' {
>         c1 \mark \markup { \char ##x03EE }
>         c1_\markup { \tiny { \char ##x03B1 " to " \char ##x03C9 } }
>       }
>       \addlyrics { O \markup { \concat{ Ph \char ##x0153 be! } } }
>     }
>     \markup { "Copyright 2008--2009" \char ##x00A9 }

To enter the copyright sign in the copyright notice use:

>     \header {
>       copyright = \markup { \char ##x00A9 "2008" }
>     }

### 3.3.4 Displaying LilyPond notation

Displaying a music expression in LilyPond notation can be done using the music function `\displayLilyMusic`. For example,

>     {
>       \displayLilyMusic \transpose c a, { c e g a bes }
>     }

will display

>     { a, cis e fis g }

By default, LilyPond will print these messages to the console along with all the other messages. To split up these messages and save the results of `\display{STUFF}`, redirect the output to a file.

>     lilypond file.ly >display.txt

## 3.4 Controlling output

### 3.4.1 Extracting fragments of music

It is possible to quote small fragments of a large score directly from the output. This can be compared to clipping a piece of a paper score with scissors.

This is done by defining the measures that need to be cut out separately. For example, including the following definition

    \layout {
      clip-regions
      = #(list
          (cons
           (make-rhythmic-location 5 1 2)
           (make-rhythmic-location 7 3 4)))
    }

will extract a fragment starting halfway the fifth measure, ending in the seventh measure. The meaning of `5 1 2` is: after a 1/2 note in measure 5, and `7 3 4` after 3 quarter notes in measure 7.

More clip regions can be defined by adding more pairs of rhythmic-locations to the list.

In order to use this feature, LilyPond must be invoked with `-dclip-systems`. The clips are output as EPS files, and are converted to PDF and PNG if these formats are switched on as well.

For more information on output formats, see Invoking lilypond.

### 3.4.2 Skipping corrected music

When entering or copying music, usually only the music near the end (where you are adding notes) is interesting to view and correct. To speed up this correction process, it is possible to skip typesetting of all but the last few measures. This is achieved by putting

    showLastLength = R1*5
    \score { ... }

in your source file. This will render only the last 5 measures (assuming 4/4 time signature) of every `\score` in the input file. For longer pieces, rendering only a small part is often an order of magnitude quicker than rendering it completely. When working on the beginning of a score you have already typeset (e.g. to add a new part), the `showFirstLength` property may be useful as well.

Skipping parts of a score can be controlled in a more fine-grained fashion with the property `Score.skipTypesetting`. When it is set, no typesetting is performed at all.

This property is also used to control output to the MIDI file. Note that it skips all events, including tempo and instrument changes. You have been warned.

>     \relative c'' {
>       c8 d
>       \set Score.skipTypesetting = ##t
>       e e e e e e e e
>       \set Score.skipTypesetting = ##f
>       c d b bes a g c2 }

In polyphonic music, `Score.skipTypesetting` will affect all voices and staves, saving even more time.

## 3.5 MIDI output

MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) is a standard for connecting and controlling digital instruments. A MIDI file is a series of notes in a number of tracks. It is not an actual sound file; you need special software to translate between the series of notes and actual sounds.

Pieces of music can be converted to MIDI files, so you can listen to what was entered. This is convenient for checking the music; octaves that are off or accidentals that were mistyped stand out very much when listening to the MIDI output.

The midi output allocates a channel for each staff, and one for global settings. Therefore the midi file should not have more than 15 staves (or 14 if you do not use drums). Other staves will remain silent.

### 3.5.1 Creating MIDI files

To create a MIDI output file from a LilyPond input file, add a `\midi` block to a score, for example,

>     \score {
>       ...music...
>       \midi { }
>     }

If there is a `\midi` block in a `\score` with no `\layout` block, only MIDI output will be produced. When notation is needed too, a `\layout` block must be also be present.

>     \score {
>       ...music...
>       \midi { }
>       \layout { }
>     }

Pitches, rhythms, ties, dynamics, and tempo changes are interpreted and translated correctly to the MIDI output. Dynamic marks, crescendi and decrescendi translate into MIDI volume levels. Dynamic marks translate to a fixed fraction of the available MIDI volume range. Crescendi and decrescendi make the volume vary linearly between their two extremes. The effect of dynamic markings on the MIDI output can be removed completely, see MIDI block.

The initial tempo and later tempo changes can be specified with the `\tempo` command within the music notation. These are reflected in tempo changes in the MIDI output. This command will normally result in the metronome mark being printed, but this can be suppressed, see Metronome marks. An alternative way of specifying the inital or overall MIDI tempo is described below, see MIDI block.

#### Instrument names

The MIDI instrument to be used is specified by setting the `Staff.midiInstrument` property to the instrument name. The name should be chosen from the list in MIDI instruments.

>     \new Staff {
>       \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"glockenspiel"
>       ...notes...
>     }

>     \new Staff \with {midiInstrument = #"cello"} {
>       ...notes...
>     }

If the selected instrument does not exactly match an instrument from the list of MIDI instruments, the Grand Piano (`"acoustic grand"`) instrument is used.

#### Selected Snippets

Changing MIDI output to one channel per voice

When outputting MIDI, the default behavior is for each staff to represent one MIDI channel, with all the voices on a staff amalgamated. This minimizes the risk of running out of MIDI channels, since there are only 16 available per track.

However, by moving the `Staff_performer` to the `Voice` context, each voice on a staff can have its own MIDI channel, as is demonstrated by the following example: despite being on the same staff, two MIDI channels are created, each with a different `midiInstrument`.

>     \score {
>       \new Staff <<
>         \new Voice \relative c''' {
>           \set midiInstrument = #"flute"
>           \voiceOne
>           \key g \major
>           \time 2/2
>           r2 g-"Flute" ~
>           g fis ~
>           fis4 g8 fis e2 ~
>           e4 d8 cis d2
>         }
>         \new Voice \relative c'' {
>           \set midiInstrument = #"clarinet"
>           \voiceTwo
>           b1-"Clarinet"
>           a2. b8 a
>           g2. fis8 e
>           fis2 r
>         }
>       >>
>       \layout { }
>       \midi {
>         \context {
>           \Staff
>           \remove "Staff_performer"
>         }
>         \context {
>           \Voice
>           \consists "Staff_performer"
>         }
>         \context {
>           \Score
>           tempoWholesPerMinute = #(ly:make-moment 72 2)
>         }
>       }
>     }

#### Known issues and warnings

Changes in the MIDI volume take place only on starting a note, so crescendi and decrescendi cannot affect the volume of a single note.

Not all midi players correctly handle tempo changes in the midi output. Players that are known to work include MS Windows Media Player and timidity.

### 3.5.2 MIDI block

A `\midi` block must appear within a score block if MIDI output is required. It is analogous to the layout block, but somewhat simpler. Often, the `\midi` block is left empty, but it can contain context rearrangements, new context definitions or code to set the values of properties. For example, the following will set the initial tempo exported to a MIDI file without causing a tempo indication to be printed:

>     \score {
>       ...music...
>       \midi {
>         \context {
>           \Score
>           tempoWholesPerMinute = #(ly:make-moment 72 4)
>         }
>       }
>     }

In this example the tempo is set to 72 quarter note beats per minute. This kind of tempo specification cannot take a dotted note length as an argument. If one is required, break the dotted note into smaller units. For example, a tempo of 90 dotted quarter notes per minute can be specified as 270 eighth notes per minute:

>     tempoWholesPerMinute = #(ly:make-moment 270 8)

Context definitions follow precisely the same syntax as those within a `\layout` block. Translation modules for sound are called performers. The contexts for MIDI output are defined in ‘`../ly/performer-init.ly`’, see Other sources of information. For example, to remove the effect of dynamics from the MIDI output, insert the following lines in the `\midi{ }` block.

>     \midi {
>       ...
>       \context {
>         \Voice
>         \remove "Dynamic_performer"
>       }
>     }

MIDI output is created only when a `\midi` block is included within a score block defined with a `\score` command. If it is placed within an explicitly instantiated score context (i.e. within a `\new Score` block) the file will fail. To solve this, enclose the `\new Score` and the `\midi` commands in a `\score` block.

>     \score {
>       \new Score { …notes… }
>       \midi { }
>     }

### 3.5.3 What goes into the MIDI output?

#### Supported in MIDI

The following items of notation are reflected in the MIDI output:

- Pitches
- Microtones (See Accidentals. Rendering needs a player that supports pitch bend.)
- Chords entered as chord names
- Rhythms entered as note durations, including tuplets
- Tremolos entered without ‘`:`[number]’
- Ties
- Dynamic marks
- Crescendi, decrescendi over multiple notes
- Tempo changes entered with a tempo marking
- Lyrics

#### Unsupported in MIDI

The following items of notation have no effect on the MIDI output:

- Rhythms entered as annotations, e.g. swing
- Tempo changes entered as annotations with no tempo marking
- Staccato and other articulations and ornamentations
- Slurs and Phrasing slurs
- Crescendi, decrescendi over a single note
- Tremolos entered with ‘`:`[number]’
- Figured bass
- Microtonal chords

### 3.5.4 Repeats in MIDI

With a few minor additions, all types of repeats can be represented in the MIDI output. This is achieved by applying the `\unfoldRepeats` music function. This function changes all repeats to unfold repeats.

>     \unfoldRepeats {
>       \repeat tremolo 8 {c'32 e' }
>       \repeat percent 2 { c''8 d'' }
>       \repeat volta 2 {c'4 d' e' f'}
>       \alternative {
>         { g' a' a' g' }
>         {f' e' d' c' }
>       }
>     }
>     \bar "|."

When creating a score file using `\unfoldRepeats` for MIDI, it is necessary to make two `\score` blocks: one for MIDI (with unfolded repeats) and one for notation (with volta, tremolo, and percent repeats). For example,

>     \score {
>       ..music..
>       \layout { .. }
>     }
>     \score {
>       \unfoldRepeats ..music..
>       \midi { .. }
>     }

### 3.5.5 Controlling MIDI dynamics

MIDI dynamics are implemented by the Dynamic_performer which lives by default in the Voice context. It is possible to control the overall MIDI volume, the relative volume of dynamic markings and the relative volume of different instruments.

#### Dynamic marks

Dynamic marks are translated to a fixed fraction of the available MIDI volume range. The default fractions range from 0.25 for ppppp to 0.95 for fffff. The set of dynamic marks and the associated fractions can be seen in ‘`../scm/midi.scm`’, see Other sources of information. This set of fractions may be changed or extended by providing a function which takes a dynamic mark as its argument and returns the required fraction, and setting `Score.dynamicAbsoluteVolumeFunction` to this function.

For example, if a rinforzando dynamic marking, `\rfz`, is required, this will not by default have any effect on the MIDI volume, as this dynamic marking is not included in the default set. Similarly, if a new dynamic marking has been defined with `make-dynamic-script` that too will not be included in the default set. The following example shows how the MIDI volume for such dynamic markings might be added. The Scheme function sets the fraction to 0.9 if a dynamic mark of rfz is found, or calls the default function otherwise.

>     #(define (myDynamics dynamic)
>         (if (equal? dynamic "rfz")
>           0.9
>           (default-dynamic-absolute-volume dynamic)))

>     \score {
>       \new Staff {
>         \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"cello"
>         \set Score.dynamicAbsoluteVolumeFunction = #myDynamics
>         \new Voice {
>            \relative c'' {
>              a\pp b c-\rfz
>            }
>         }
>       }
>       \layout {}
>       \midi {}
>     }

Alternatively, if the whole table of fractions needs to be redefined, it would be better to use the default-dynamic-absolute-volume procedure in ‘`../scm/midi.scm`’ and the associated table as a model. The final example in this section shows how this might be done.

#### Overall MIDI volume

The minimum and maximum overall volume of MIDI dynamic markings is controlled by setting the properties `midiMinimumVolume` and `midiMaximumVolume` at the `Score` level. These properties have an effect only on dynamic marks, so if they are to apply from the start of the score a dynamic mark must be placed there. The fraction corresponding to each dynamic mark is modified with this formula

>     midiMinimumVolume + (midiMaximumVolume - midiMinimumVolume) * fraction

In the following example the dynamic range of the overall MIDI volume is limited to the range 0.2 - 0.5.

>     \score {
>       <<
>         \new Staff {
>           \key g \major
>           \time 2/2
>           \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"flute"
>           \new Voice \relative c''' {
>             r2 g\mp g fis ~
>             fis4 g8 fis e2 ~
>             e4 d8 cis d2
>           }
>         }
>         \new Staff {
>           \key g \major
>           \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"clarinet"
>           \new Voice \relative c'' {
>             b1\p a2. b8 a
>             g2. fis8 e
>             fis2 r
>           }
>         }
>       >>
>       \layout { }
>       \midi {
>         \context {
>           \Score
>           tempoWholesPerMinute = #(ly:make-moment 72 2)
>           midiMinimumVolume = #0.2
>           midiMaximumVolume = #0.5
>         }
>       }
>     }

#### Equalizing different instruments (i)

If the minimum and maximum MIDI volume properties are set in the `Staff` context the relative volumes of the MIDI instruments can be controlled. This gives a basic instrument equalizer, which can enhance the quality of the MIDI output remarkably.

In this example the volume of the clarinet is reduced relative to the volume of the flute. There must be a dynamic mark on the first note of each instrument for this to work correctly.

>     \score {
>       <<
>         \new Staff {
>           \key g \major
>           \time 2/2
>           \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"flute"
>           \set Staff.midiMinimumVolume = #0.7
>           \set Staff.midiMaximumVolume = #0.9
>           \new Voice \relative c''' {
>             r2 g\mp g fis ~
>             fis4 g8 fis e2 ~
>             e4 d8 cis d2
>           }
>         }
>         \new Staff {
>           \key g \major
>           \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"clarinet"
>           \set Staff.midiMinimumVolume = #0.3
>           \set Staff.midiMaximumVolume = #0.6
>           \new Voice \relative c'' {
>             b1\p a2. b8 a
>             g2. fis8 e
>             fis2 r
>           }
>         }
>       >>
>       \layout { }
>       \midi {
>         \context {
>           \Score
>           tempoWholesPerMinute = #(ly:make-moment 72 2)
>         }
>       }
>     }

#### Equalizing different instruments (ii)

If the MIDI minimum and maximum volume properties are not set LilyPond will, by default, apply a small degree of equalization to a few instruments. The instruments and the equalization applied are shown in the table instrument-equalizer-alist in ‘`../scm/midi.scm`’.

This basic default equalizer can be replaced by setting `instrumentEqualizer` in the `Score` context to a new Scheme procedure which accepts a MIDI instrument name as its only argument and returns a pair of fractions giving the minimum and maximum volumes to be applied to that instrument. This replacement is done in the same way as shown for resetting the `dynamicAbsoluteVolumeFunction` at the start of this section. The default equalizer, default-instrument-equalizer, in ‘`../scm/midi.scm`’ shows how such a procedure might be written.

The following example sets the relative flute and clarinet volumes to the same values as the previous example.

>     #(define my-instrument-equalizer-alist '())

>     #(set! my-instrument-equalizer-alist
>       (append
>         '(
>           ("flute" . (0.7 . 0.9))
>           ("clarinet" . (0.3 . 0.6)))
>         my-instrument-equalizer-alist))

>     #(define (my-instrument-equalizer s)
>       (let ((entry (assoc s my-instrument-equalizer-alist)))
>         (if entry
>           (cdr entry))))

>     \score {
>       <<
>         \new Staff {
>           \key g \major
>           \time 2/2
>           \set Score.instrumentEqualizer = #my-instrument-equalizer
>           \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"flute"
>           \new Voice \relative c''' {
>             r2 g\mp g fis ~
>             fis4 g8 fis e2 ~
>             e4 d8 cis d2
>           }
>         }
>         \new Staff {
>           \key g \major
>           \set Staff.midiInstrument = #"clarinet"
>           \new Voice \relative c'' {
>             b1\p a2. b8 a
>             g2. fis8 e
>             fis2 r
>           }
>         }
>       >>
>       \layout { }
>       \midi {
>         \context {
>           \Score
>           tempoWholesPerMinute = #(ly:make-moment 72 2)
>         }
>       }
>     }

### 3.5.6 Percussion in MIDI

Percussion instruments are generally notated in a `DrumStaff` context and when notated in this way they are outputted correctly to MIDI channel 10, but some pitched percussion instruments, like the xylophone, marimba, vibraphone, timpani, etc., are treated like “normal” instruments and music for these instruments should be entered in a normal `Staff` context, not a `DrumStaff` context, to obtain the correct MIDI output.

Some non-pitched percussion sounds included in the general MIDI standard, like melodic tom, taiko drum, synth drum, etc., cannot be reached via MIDI channel 10, so the notation for such instruments should also be entered in a normal `Staff` context, using suitable normal pitches.

Many percussion instruments are not included in the general MIDI standard, e.g. castanets. The easiest, although unsatisfactory, method of producing some MIDI output when writing for such instruments is to substitute the nearest sound from the standard set.

#### Known issues and warnings

Because the general MIDI standard does not contain rim shots, the sidestick is used for this purpose instead.

# 4. Spacing issues

The global paper layout is determined by three factors: the page layout, the line breaks, and the spacing. These all influence each other. The choice of spacing determines how densely each system of music is set. This influences where line breaks are chosen, and thus ultimately, how many pages a piece of music takes.

Globally speaking, this procedure happens in four steps: first, flexible distances (‘springs’) are chosen, based on durations. All possible line breaking combinations are tried, and a ‘badness’ score is calculated for each. Then the height of each possible system is estimated. Finally, a page breaking and line breaking combination is chosen so that neither the horizontal nor the vertical spacing is too cramped or stretched.

Settings which influence layout may be placed in two blocks. The `\paper {...}` block is placed outside any `\score {...}` blocks and contains settings that relate to the entire document. The `\layout {...}` block is placed within a `\score {...}` block and contains settings for that particular score. If you have only one `\score {...}` block the two have the same effect. In general the commands shown in this chapter can be placed in either.

## 4.1 Paper and pages

This section deals with the boundaries that define the area within which music can be printed.

### 4.1.1 Paper size

Two functions are available for changing the paper size: `set-default-paper-size` and `set-paper-size`. `set-default-paper-size` must be placed in the toplevel scope, and `set-paper-size` must be placed in a `\paper` block:

>     #(set-default-paper-size "a4")

>     \paper {
>       #(set-paper-size "a4")
>     }

`set-default-paper-size` sets the size of all pages, whereas `set-paper-size` only sets the size of the pages that the `\paper` block applies to. For example, if the `\paper` block is at the top of the file, then it will apply the paper size to all pages. If the `\paper` block is inside a `\book`, then the paper size will only apply to that book.

Common paper sizes are available, including `a4`, `letter`, `legal`, and `11x17` (also known as tabloid). Many more paper sizes are supported by default. For details, see ‘`scm/paper.scm`’, and search for the definition of `paper-alist`.

Note: The default paper size is `a4`.

Extra sizes may be added by editing the definition of `paper-alist` in the initialization file ‘`scm/paper.scm`’, however they will be overridden on a subsequent install.

If the symbol `'landscape` is supplied as an argument to `set-default-paper-size`, pages will be rotated by 90 degrees, and wider line widths will be set accordingly.

>     #(set-default-paper-size "a6" 'landscape)

Setting the paper size will adjust a number of `\paper` variables, such as margins. To use a particular paper size with altered `\paper` variables, set the paper size before setting the variables.

#### See also

Installed Files: ‘`scm/paper.scm`’.

Snippets: Spacing.

### 4.1.2 Page formatting

Margins, headers, and footers and other layout variables are automatically set according to the paper size.

This section lists and describes a number of paper variables that may be altered.

#### Vertical dimensions

These variables are used to set different vertical dimensions on a page:

`after-title-space`

  The amount of space between the title and the first system. Default: `5\mm`.

`before-title-space`

  Amount of space between the last system of the previous piece and the title of the next. Default: `10\mm`.

`between-system-padding`

  The minimum amount of white space that will always be present between the bottom-most symbol of one system, and the top-most of the next system. Default: `4\mm`.

  Increasing this will put systems whose bounding boxes almost touch farther apart.

`between-system-space`

  The distance between systems. It is the ideal distance between the center of the bottom staff of one system and the center of the top staff of the next system. Default: `20\mm`.

  Increasing this value will provide a more even appearance of the page at the cost of using more vertical space.

`between-title-space`

  Amount of space between consecutive titles (e.g., the title of the book and the title of a piece). Default: `2\mm`.

`bottom-margin`

  The margin between footer and bottom of the page. Default: `6\mm`.

`foot-separation`

  Distance between the bottom-most music system and the page footer. Default: `4\mm`.

`head-separation`

  Distance between the top-most music system and the page header. Default: `4\mm`.

`page-top-space`

  Distance from the top of the printable area to the center of the first staff. This only works for staves that are vertically small. Big staves are set with the top of their bounding box aligned to the top of the printable area. Default: `12\mm`.

`paper-height`

  The height of the page. Default: the height of the current paper size. For details, see Paper size.

`top-margin`

  The margin between header and top of the page. Default: `5\mm`.

#### Selected Snippets

The header and footer are created by the functions make-footer and make-header, defined in \paper. The default implementations are in ly/paper-defaults.ly and ly/titling-init.ly.

The page layout itself is done by two functions in the \paper block, page-music-height and page-make-stencil. The former tells the line-breaking algorithm how much space can be spent on a page, the latter creates the actual page given the system to put on it.

You can define paper block values in Scheme. In that case mm, in, pt, and cm are variables defined in paper-defaults.ly with values in millimeters. That is why the value 2 cm must be multiplied in the example

>     \paper {
>      #(define bottom-margin (* 2 cm))
>     }

Example:

>     \paper{
>       paper-width = 2\cm
>       top-margin = 3\cm
>       bottom-margin = 3\cm
>       ragged-last-bottom = ##t
>     }

This second example centers page numbers at the bottom of every page.

>     \paper {
>       print-page-number = ##t
>       print-first-page-number = ##t
>       oddHeaderMarkup = \markup \fill-line { " " }
>       evenHeaderMarkup = \markup \fill-line { " " }
>       oddFooterMarkup = \markup { \fill-line {
>          \bold \fontsize #3 \on-the-fly #print-page-number-check-first
>          \fromproperty #'page:page-number-string } }
>       evenFooterMarkup = \markup { \fill-line {
>          \bold \fontsize #3 \on-the-fly #print-page-number-check-first
>          \fromproperty #'page:page-number-string } }
>     }

You can also define these values in Scheme. In that case `mm`, `in`, `pt`, and `cm` are variables defined in ‘`paper-defaults.ly`’ with values in millimeters. That is why the value must be multiplied in the example

>     \paper {
>       #(define bottom-margin (* 2 cm))
>     }

The header and footer are created by the functions `make-footer` and `make-header`, defined in `\paper`. The default implementations are in ‘`ly/paper-defaults.ly`’ and ‘`ly/titling-init.ly`’.

The page layout itself is done by two functions in the `\paper` block, `page-music-height` and `page-make-stencil`. The former tells the line-breaking algorithm how much space can be spent on a page, the latter creates the actual page given the system to put on it.

#### See also

Notation Reference: Vertical spacing between systems.

Snippets: Spacing.

#### Horizontal dimensions

Note: If `paper-width` is manually set, `line-width`, `left-margin`, `indent`, and `short-indent` may have to be adjusted as well.

There are a few variables that determine the horizontal dimensions on a page:

`horizontal-shift`

  The amount that all systems (including titles and system separators) are shifted to the right. Default: `0.0`.

`indent`

  The level of indentation for the first system in a score. Default: `paper-width` divided by `14`, as determined by `set-default-paper-size` or `set-paper-size`.

`left-margin`

  The margin between the left edge of the page and the beginning of each system. Default: `10\mm`, as determined by `set-default-paper-size` or `set-paper-size`.

`line-width`

  The width of music systems. Default: `paper-width` minus `20\mm`, as determined by `set-default-paper-size` or `set-paper-size`.

`paper-width`

  The width of the page. Default: the width of the current paper size. For details, see Paper size.

`short-indent`

  The level of indentation for all systems in a score besides the first system. Default: `0`, as determined by `set-default-paper-size` or `set-paper-size`.

#### See also

Snippets: Spacing.

#### Known issues and warnings

The option `right-margin` is defined but doesn’t set the right margin yet. The value for the right margin has to be defined by adjusting the values of `left-margin` and `line-width`.

#### Other layout variables

These variables can be used to adjust page layout in general.

`auto-first-page-number`

  The page breaking algorithm is affected by the first page number being odd or even. If set to true, the page breaking algorithm will decide whether to start with an odd or even number. This will result in the first page number remaining as is or being increased by one. Default: `##f`.

`blank-last-page-force`

  The penalty for ending the score on an odd-numbered page. Default: `0`.

`blank-page-force`

  The penalty for having a blank page in the middle of a score. This is not used by `ly:optimal-breaking` since it will never consider blank pages in the middle of a score. Default: `5`.

`first-page-number`

  The value of the page number on the first page. Default: `#1`.

`page-breaking-between-system-padding`

  Tricks the page breaker into thinking that `between-system-padding` is set to something different than it really is. For example, if this variable is set to something substantially larger than `between-system-padding`, then the page-breaker will put fewer systems on each page. Default: unset.

`page-count`

  The number of pages to be used for a score. Default: unset.

`page-limit-inter-system-space`

  If set to true, limits space between systems on a page with a lot of space left. Default: `##f`. For details, see Vertical spacing between systems.

`page-limit-inter-system-space-factor`

  The factor used by `page-limit-inter-system-space`. Default: `1.4`. For details, see Vertical spacing between systems.

`page-spacing-weight`

  The relative importance of page (vertical) spacing and line (horizontal) spacing. High values will make page spacing more important. Default: `#10`.

`print-all-headers`

  If set to true, this will print all headers for each \score in the output. Normally only the piece and opus header variables are printed. Default: `##f`.

`print-first-page-number`

  If set to true, a page number is printed on the first page. Default: `##f`.

`print-page-number`

  If set to false, page numbers are not printed. Default: `##t`.

`ragged-bottom`

  If set to true, systems will not spread vertically across the page. This does not affect the last page. Default: `##f`.

  This should be set to true for pieces that have only two or three systems per page, for example orchestral scores.

`ragged-last`

  If set to true, the last system in the score will not fill the line width. Instead the last system ends at its natural horizontal length. Default: `##f`.

`ragged-last-bottom`

  If set to false, systems will spread vertically across the last page. Default: `##t`.

  Pieces that amply fill two pages or more should have this set to true.

  It also affects the last page of book parts, ie parts of a book created with `\bookpart` blocks.

`ragged-right`

  If set to true, systems will not fill the line width. Instead, systems end at their natural horizontal length. Default: `##f`.

  If the score has only one system, the default value is `##t`.

`system-separator-markup`

  A markup object that is inserted between systems. This is often used for orchestral scores. Default: unset.

  The markup command `\slashSeparator` is provided as a sensible default, for example

`system-count`

  The number of systems to be used for a score. Default: unset.

#### See also

Snippets: Spacing.

#### Known issues and warnings

The default page header puts the page number and the `instrument` field from the `\header` block on a line.

The titles (from the `\header{}` section) are treated as a system, so `ragged-bottom` and `ragged-last-bottom` will add space between the titles and the first system of the score.

## 4.2 Music layout

### 4.2.1 Setting the staff size

The default staff size is set to 20 points. This may be changed in two ways:

To set the staff size globally for all scores in a file (or in a `book` block, to be precise), use `set-global-staff-size`.

>     #(set-global-staff-size 14)

This sets the global default size to 14pt staff height and scales all fonts accordingly.

To set the staff size individually for each score, use

>     \score{
>       ...
>       \layout{
>       #(layout-set-staff-size 15)
>       }
>     }

The Feta font provides musical symbols at eight different sizes. Each font is tuned for a different staff size: at a smaller size the font becomes heavier, to match the relatively heavier staff lines. The recommended font sizes are listed in the following table:

> font name | staff height (pt) | staff height (mm) | use
> feta11 | 11.22 | 3.9 | pocket scores
> feta13 | 12.60 | 4.4 |
> feta14 | 14.14 | 5.0 |
> feta16 | 15.87 | 5.6 |
> feta18 | 17.82 | 6.3 | song books
> feta20 | 20 | 7.0 | standard parts
> feta23 | 22.45 | 7.9 |
> feta26 | 25.2 | 8.9 |

These fonts are available in any sizes. The context property `fontSize` and the layout property `staff-space` (in StaffSymbol) can be used to tune the size for individual staves. The sizes of individual staves are relative to the global size.

#### See also

Notation Reference: Selecting notation font size.

Snippets: Spacing.

#### Known issues and warnings

`layout-set-staff-size` does not change the distance between the staff lines.

### 4.2.2 Score layout

While `\paper` contains settings that relate to the page formatting of the whole document, `\layout` contains settings for score-specific layout.

>     \layout {
>       indent = 2.0\cm
>       \context { \Staff
>         \override VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(-6 . 6)
>       }
>       \context { \Voice
>         \override TextScript #'padding = #1.0
>         \override Glissando #'thickness = #3
>       }
>     }

#### See also

Notation Reference: Changing context default settings.

Snippets: Spacing.

## 4.3 Breaks

### 4.3.1 Line breaking

Line breaks are normally determined automatically. They are chosen so that lines look neither cramped nor loose, and consecutive lines have similar density. Occasionally you might want to override the automatic breaks; you can do this by specifying `\break`. This will force a line break at this point. However, line breaks can only occur at the end of ‘complete’ bars, i.e., where there are no notes or tuplets left ‘hanging’ over the bar line. If you want to have a line break where there is no bar line, you can force an invisible bar line by entering `\bar ""`, although again there must be no notes left hanging over in any of the staves at this point, or it will be ignored.

The opposite command, `\noBreak`, forbids a line break at the bar line where it is inserted.

The most basic settings influencing line spacing are `indent` and `line-width`. They are set in the `\layout` block. They control the indentation of the first line of music, and the lengths of the lines.

If `ragged-right` is set to true in the `\layout` block, then systems end at their natural horizontal length, instead of being spread horizontally to fill the whole line. This is useful for short fragments, and for checking how tight the natural spacing is.

The option `ragged-last` is similar to `ragged-right`, but affects only the last line of the piece.

>     \layout {
>     indent = #0
>     line-width = #150
>     ragged-last = ##t
>     }

For line breaks at regular intervals use `\break` separated by skips and repeated with `\repeat`. For example, this would cause the following 28 measures (assuming 4/4 time) to be broken every 4 measures, and only there:

>     << \repeat unfold 7 {
>              s1 \noBreak s1 \noBreak
>              s1 \noBreak s1 \break }
>        the real music
>     >>

A linebreaking configuration can be saved as a `.ly` file automatically. This allows vertical alignments to be stretched to fit pages in a second formatting run. This is fairly new and complicated. More details are available in Spacing.

#### Predefined commands

`\break`, `\noBreak`.

#### See also

Internals Reference: LineBreakEvent.

Snippets: Spacing.

#### Known issues and warnings

Line breaks can only occur if there is a ‘proper’ bar line. A note which is hanging over a bar line is not proper, such as

>     c4 c2 << c2 {s4 \break } >>  % this does nothing
>     c2 c4 |           % a break here would work
>     c4 c2 c4 ~ \break % as does this break
>     c4 c2 c4

This can be avoided by removing the `Forbid_line_break_engraver`. Note that manually forced line breaks have to be added in parallel with the music.

>     \new Voice \with {
>       \remove Forbid_line_break_engraver
>     } {
>       c4 c2 << c2 {s4 \break } >>  % now the break is allowed
>       c2 c4
>     }

Similarly, line breaks are normally forbidden when beams cross bar lines. This behavior can be changed by setting `\override Beam #'breakable = ##t`.

### 4.3.2 Page breaking

The default page breaking may be overridden by inserting `\pageBreak` or `\noPageBreak` commands. These commands are analogous to `\break` and `\noBreak`. They should be inserted at a bar line. These commands force and forbid a page-break from happening. Of course, the `\pageBreak` command also forces a line break.

The `\pageBreak` and `\noPageBreak` commands may also be inserted at top-level, between scores and top-level markups.

There are also analogous settings to `ragged-right` and `ragged-last` which have the same effect on vertical spacing: `ragged-bottom` and `ragged-last-bottom`. If set to `##t` the systems on all pages or just the last page respectively will not be justified vertically.

For more details see Vertical spacing.

Page breaks are computed by the `page-breaking` function. LilyPond provides three algorithms for computing page breaks, `ly:optimal-breaking`, `ly:page-turn-breaking` and `ly:minimal-breaking`. The default is `ly:optimal-breaking`, but the value can be changed in the `\paper` block:

>     \paper{
>       #(define page-breaking ly:page-turn-breaking)
>     }

The old page breaking algorithm is called `optimal-page-breaks`. If you are having trouble with the new page breakers, you can enable the old one as a workaround.

When a book has many scores and pages, the page breaking problem may be difficult to solve, requiring large processing time and memory. To ease the page breaking process, `\bookpart` blocks are used to divide the book into several parts: the page breaking occurs separately on each part. Different page breaking functions may also be used in different book parts.

>     \bookpart {
>       \header {
>         subtitle = "Preface"
>       }
>       \paper {
>          %% In a part consisting mostly of text,
>          %% ly:minimal-breaking may be prefered
>          #(define page-breaking ly:minimal-breaking)
>       }
>       \markup { … }
>       …
>     }
>     \bookpart {
>       %% In this part, consisting of music, the default optimal
>       %% page breaking function is used.
>       \header {
>         subtitle = "First movement"
>       }
>       \score { … }
>       …
>     }

#### Predefined commands

`\pageBreak`, `\noPageBreak`.

#### See also

Snippets: Spacing.

### 4.3.3 Optimal page breaking

The `ly:optimal-breaking` function is LilyPond’s default method of determining page breaks. It attempts to find a page breaking that minimizes cramping and stretching, both horizontally and vertically. Unlike `ly:page-turn-breaking`, it has no concept of page turns.

#### See also

Snippets: Spacing.

### 4.3.4 Optimal page turning

Often it is necessary to find a page breaking configuration so that there is a rest at the end of every second page. This way, the musician can turn the page without having to miss notes. The `ly:page-turn-breaking` function attempts to find a page breaking minimizing cramping and stretching, but with the additional restriction that it is only allowed to introduce page turns in specified places.

There are two steps to using this page breaking function. First, you must enable it in the `\paper` block, as explained in Page breaking. Then you must tell the function where you would like to allow page breaks.

There are two ways to achieve the second step. First, you can specify each potential page turn manually, by inserting `\allowPageTurn` into your input file at the appropriate places.

If this is too tedious, you can add a `Page_turn_engraver` to a Staff or Voice context. The `Page_turn_engraver` will scan the context for sections without notes (note that it does not scan for rests; it scans for the absence of notes. This is so that single-staff polyphony with rests in one of the parts does not throw off the `Page_turn_engraver`). When it finds a sufficiently long section without notes, the `Page_turn_engraver` will insert an `\allowPageTurn` at the final bar line in that section, unless there is a ‘special’ bar line (such as a double bar), in which case the `\allowPageTurn` will be inserted at the final ‘special’ bar line in the section.

The `Page_turn_engraver` reads the context property `minimumPageTurnLength` to determine how long a note-free section must be before a page turn is considered. The default value for `minimumPageTurnLength` is `#(ly:make-moment 1 1)`. If you want to disable page turns, you can set it to something very large.

>     \new Staff \with { \consists "Page_turn_engraver" }
>     {
>       a4 b c d |
>       R1 | % a page turn will be allowed here
>       a4 b c d |
>       \set Staff.minimumPageTurnLength = #(ly:make-moment 5 2)
>       R1 | % a page turn will not be allowed here
>       a4 b r2 |
>       R1*2 | % a page turn will be allowed here
>       a1
>     }

The `Page_turn_engraver` detects volta repeats. It will only allow a page turn during the repeat if there is enough time at the beginning and end of the repeat to turn the page back. The `Page_turn_engraver` can also disable page turns if the repeat is very short. If you set the context property `minimumRepeatLengthForPageTurn` then the `Page_turn_engraver` will only allow turns in repeats whose duration is longer than this value.

The page turning commands, `\pageTurn`, `\noPageTurn` and `\allowPageTurn`, may also be used at top-level, between scores and top-level markups.

#### Predefined commands

`\pageTurn`, `\noPageTurn`, `\allowPageTurn`.

#### See also

Snippets: Spacing.

#### Known issues and warnings

There should only be one `Page_turn_engraver` in a score. If there is more than one, they will interfere with each other.

### 4.3.5 Minimal page breaking

The `ly:minimal-breaking` function performs minimal computations to calculate the page breaking: it fills a page with as many systems as possible before moving to the next one. Thus, it may be preferred for scores with many pages, where the other page breaking functions could be too slow or memory demanding, or a lot of texts. It is enabled using:

>     \paper {
>       #(define page-breaking ly:minimal-breaking)
>     }

#### See also

Snippets: Spacing.

### 4.3.6 Explicit breaks

Lily sometimes rejects explicit `\break` and `\pageBreak` commands. There are two commands to override this behavior:

>     \override NonMusicalPaperColumn #'line-break-permission = ##f
>     \override NonMusicalPaperColumn #'page-break-permission = ##f

When `line-break-permission` is overridden to false, Lily will insert line breaks at explicit `\break` commands and nowhere else. When `page-break-permission` is overridden to false, Lily will insert page breaks at explicit `\pageBreak` commands and nowhere else.

>     \paper {
>       indent = #0
>       ragged-right = ##t
>       ragged-bottom = ##t
>     }

>     \score {
>       \new Score \with {
>         \override NonMusicalPaperColumn #'line-break-permission = ##f
>         \override NonMusicalPaperColumn #'page-break-permission = ##f
>       } {
>         \new Staff {
>           \repeat unfold 2 { c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 } \break
>           \repeat unfold 4 { c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 } \break
>           \repeat unfold 6 { c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 } \break
>           \repeat unfold 8 { c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 } \pageBreak
>           \repeat unfold 8 { c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 } \break
>           \repeat unfold 6 { c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 } \break
>           \repeat unfold 4 { c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 } \break
>           \repeat unfold 2 { c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 }
>         }
>       }
>     }

#### See also

Snippets: Spacing.

### 4.3.7 Using an extra voice for breaks

Line- and page-breaking information usually appears within note entry directly.

>     \new Score {
>       \new Staff {
>         \repeat unfold 2 { c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 }
>         \break
>         \repeat unfold 3 { c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 }
>       }
>     }

This makes `\break` and `\pageBreak` commands easy to enter but mixes music entry with information that specifies how music should lay out on the page. You can keep music entry and line- and page-breaking information in two separate places by introducing an extra voice to contain the breaks. This extra voice contains only skips together with `\break`, `pageBreak` and other breaking layout information.

>     \new Score {
>       \new Staff <<
>          \new Voice {
>             s1 * 2 \break
>             s1 * 3 \break
>             s1 * 6 \break
>             s1 * 5 \break
>          }
>          \new Voice {
>             \repeat unfold 2 { c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 }
>             \repeat unfold 3 { c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 }
>             \repeat unfold 6 { c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 }
>             \repeat unfold 5 { c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 }
>          }
>       >>
>     }

This pattern becomes especially helpful when overriding `line-break-system-details` and the other useful but long properties of `NonMusicalPaperColumnGrob`, as explained in Vertical spacing.

>     \new Score {
>       \new Staff <<
>          \new Voice {

>             \overrideProperty "Score.NonMusicalPaperColumn"
>             #'line-break-system-details #'((Y-offset . 0))
>             s1 * 2 \break

>             \overrideProperty "Score.NonMusicalPaperColumn"
>             #'line-break-system-details #'((Y-offset . 35))
>             s1 * 3 \break

>             \overrideProperty "Score.NonMusicalPaperColumn"
>             #'line-break-system-details #'((Y-offset . 70))
>             s1 * 6 \break

>             \overrideProperty "Score.NonMusicalPaperColumn"
>             #'line-break-system-details #'((Y-offset . 105))
>             s1 * 5 \break
>          }
>          \new Voice {
>             \repeat unfold 2 { c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 }
>             \repeat unfold 3 { c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 }
>             \repeat unfold 6 { c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 }
>             \repeat unfold 5 { c'4 c'4 c'4 c'4 }
>          }
>       >>
>     }

#### See also

Notation Reference: Vertical spacing.

Snippets: Spacing.

## 4.4 Vertical spacing

Vertical spacing is controlled by three things: the amount of space available (i.e., paper size and margins), the amount of space between systems, and the amount of space between staves inside a system.

### 4.4.1 Vertical spacing inside a system

The height of each system is determined automatically. To prevent staves from bumping into each other, some minimum distances are set. By changing these, you can put staves closer together. This reduces the amount of space each system requires, and may result in having more systems per page.

Normally staves are stacked vertically. To make staves maintain a distance, their vertical size is padded. This is done with the property `minimum-Y-extent`. When applied to a VerticalAxisGroup, it controls the size of a horizontal line, such as a staff or a line of lyrics. `minimum-Y-extent` takes a pair of numbers, so if you want to make it smaller than its default `#'(-4 . 4)` then you could set

>     \override Staff.VerticalAxisGroup #'minimum-Y-extent = #'(-3 . 3)

This sets the vertical size of the current staff to 3 staff spaces on either side of the center staff line. The value `(-3 . 3)` is interpreted as an interval, where the center line is the 0, so the first number is generally negative. The numbers need not match; for example, the staff can be made larger at the bottom by setting it to `(-6 . 4)`.

After page breaks are determined, the vertical spacing within each system is reevaluated in order to fill the page more evenly; if a page has space left over, systems are stretched in order to fill that space. The amount of stretching can be configured though the `max-stretch` property of the VerticalAlignment grob. By default, `max-stretch` is set to zero, disabling stretching. To enable stretching, a sane value for `max-stretch` is `ly:align-interface::calc-max-stretch`.

In some situations, you may want to stretch most of a system while leaving some parts fixed. For example, if a piano part occurs in the middle of an orchestral score, you may want to leave the piano staves close to each other while stretching the rest of the score. The `keep-fixed-while-stretching` property of VerticalAxisGroup can be used to achieve this. When set to `##t`, this property keeps its staff (or line of lyrics) from moving relative to the one directly above it. In the example above, you would override `keep-fixed-while-stretching` to `##t` in the second piano staff:

    #(set-default-paper-size "a6")
    #(set-global-staff-size 14.0)

    \book {
    \paper {
      ragged-last-bottom = ##f
    }

    \new Score \with
    {
      \override VerticalAlignment #'max-stretch = #ly:align-interface::calc-max-stretch
    }
    {
    \new GrandStaff
    <<
      \new StaffGroup
      <<
        \new Staff {c' d' e' f'}
        \new Staff {c' d' e' f'}
        \new Staff {c' d' e' f'}
      >>

      \new PianoStaff
      <<
        \new Staff {c' d' e' f'}
        \new Staff \with {
          \override VerticalAxisGroup #'keep-fixed-while-stretching = ##t
        }
        {c' d' e' f'}
      >>

      \new StaffGroup
      <<
        \new Staff {c' d' e' f'}
        \new Staff {c' d' e' f'}
      >>
    >>
    }
    }

Vertical alignment of staves is handled by the `VerticalAlignment` object. The context parameters specifying the vertical extent are described in connection with the `Axis_group_engraver`.

#### See also

Snippets: Spacing.

Internals Reference: VerticalAlignment, Axis_group_engraver.

### 4.4.2 Vertical spacing between systems

Space between systems are controlled by four `\paper` variables,

>     \paper {
>       between-system-space = 1.5\cm
>       between-system-padding = #1
>       ragged-bottom=##f
>       ragged-last-bottom=##f
>     }

When only a couple of flat systems are placed on a page, the resulting vertical spacing may be non-elegant: one system at the top of the page, and the other at the bottom, with a huge gap between them. To avoid this situation, the space added between the systems can be limited. This feature is activated by setting to `#t` the `page-limit-inter-system-space` variable in the `\paper` block. The paper variable `page-limit-inter-system-space-factor` determines how much the space can be increased: for instance, the value `1.3` means that the space can be 30% larger than what it would be on a ragged-bottom page.

In the following example, if the inter system space were not limited, the second system of page 1 would be placed at the page bottom. By activating the space limitation, the second system is placed closer to the first one. By setting `page-limit-inter-system-space-factor` to `1`, the spacing would the same as on a ragged-bottom page, like the last one.

    #(set-default-paper-size "a6")
    \book {
      \paper {
        page-limit-inter-system-space = ##t
        page-limit-inter-system-space-factor = 1.3

        oddFooterMarkup = \markup "page bottom"
        evenFooterMarkup = \markup "page bottom"
        oddHeaderMarkup = \markup \fill-line {
          "page top" \fromproperty #'page:page-number-string }
        evenHeaderMarkup = \markup \fill-line {
          "page top" \fromproperty #'page:page-number-string }
      }
      \new Staff << \repeat unfold 4 { g'4 g' g' g' \break }
                    { s1*2 \pageBreak } >>
    }

#### See also

Snippets: Spacing.

### 4.4.3 Explicit staff and system positioning

One way to understand the `VerticalAxisGroup` and `\paper` settings explained in the previous two sections is as a collection of different settings that primarily concern the amount of vertical padding different staves and systems running down the page.

It is possible to approach vertical spacing in a different way using `NonMusicalPaperColumn #'line-break-system-details`. Where `VerticalAxisGroup` and `\paper` settings specify vertical padding, `NonMusicalPaperColumn #'line-break-system-details` specifies exact vertical positions on the page.

`NonMusicalPaperColumn #'line-break-system-details` accepts an associative list of five different settings:

- `X-offset`
- `Y-offset`
- `alignment-offsets`
- `alignment-extra-space`
- `fixed-alignment-extra-space`

Grob overrides, including the overrides for `NonMusicalPaperColumn` below, can occur in any of three different places in an input file:

- in the middle of note entry directly
- in a `\context` block
- in the `\with` block

When we override `NonMusicalPaperColumn`, we use the usual `\override` command in `\context` blocks and in the `\with` block. On the other hand, when we override `NonMusicalPaperColumn` in the middle of note entry, use the special `\overrideProperty` command. Here are some example `NonMusicalPaperColumn` overrides with the special `\overrideProperty` command:

>     \overrideProperty NonMusicalPaperColumn
>       #'line-break-system-details #'((X-offset . 20))

>     \overrideProperty NonMusicalPaperColumn
>       #'line-break-system-details #'((Y-offset . 40))

>     \overrideProperty NonMusicalPaperColumn
>       #'line-break-system-details #'((X-offset . 20) (Y-offset . 40))

>     \overrideProperty NonMusicalPaperColumn
>       #'line-break-system-details #'((alignment-offsets . (0 -15)))

>     \overrideProperty NonMusicalPaperColumn
>       #'line-break-system-details #'((X-offset . 20) (Y-offset . 40)
>                                      (alignment-offsets . (0 -15)))

To understand how each of these different settings work, we begin by looking at an example that includes no overrides at all.

This score isolates line- and page-breaking information in a dedicated voice. This technique of creating a breaks voice will help keep layout separate from music entry as our example becomes more complicated. See Using an extra voice for breaks.

Explicit `\breaks` evenly divide the music into six measures per line. Vertical spacing results from LilyPond’s defaults. To set the vertical startpoint of each system explicitly, we can set the `Y-offset` pair in the `line-break-system-details` attribute of the `NonMusicalPaperColumn` grob:

Note that `line-break-system-details` takes an associative list of potentially many values, but that we set only one value here. Note, too, that the `Y-offset` property here determines the exact vertical position on the page at which each new system will render.

Now that we have set the vertical startpoint of each system explicitly, we can also set the vertical startpoint of each staff within each system manually. We do this using the `alignment-offsets` subproperty of `line-break-system-details`.

Note that here we assign two different values to the `line-break-system-details` attribute of the `NonMusicalPaperColumn` grob. Though the `line-break-system-details` attribute alist accepts many additional spacing parameters (including, for example, a corresponding `X-offset` pair), we need only set the `Y-offset` and `alignment-offsets` pairs to control the vertical startpoint of every system and every staff. Finally, note that `alignment-offsets` specifies the vertical positioning of staves but not of staff groups.

Some points to consider:

- When using `alignment-offsets`, lyrics count as a staff.
- The units of the numbers passed to `X-offset`, `Y-offset` and `alignment-offsets` are interpreted as multiples of the distance between adjacent staff lines. Positive values move staves and lyrics up, negative values move staves and lyrics down.
- Because the `NonMusicalPaperColumn #'line-break-system-details` settings given here allow the positioning of staves and systems anywhere on the page, it is possible to violate paper or margin boundaries or even to print staves or systems on top of one another. Reasonable values passed to these different settings will avoid this.

#### See also

Snippets: Spacing.

### 4.4.4 Two-pass vertical spacing

Note: Two-pass vertical spacing is deprecated and will be removed in a future version of LilyPond. Systems are now stretched automatically in a single pass. See Vertical spacing inside a system.

In order to automatically stretch systems so that they should fill the space left on a page, a two-pass technique can be used:

1. In the first pass, the amount of vertical space used to increase the height of each system is computed and dumped to a file.
2. In the second pass, spacing inside the systems are stretched according to the data in the page layout file.

The `ragged-bottom` property adds space between systems, while the two-pass technique adds space between staves inside a system.

To allow this behavior, a `tweak-key` variable has to be set in each score `\layout` block, and the tweaks included in each score music, using the `\scoreTweak` music function.

>     %% include the generated page layout file:
>     \includePageLayoutFile

>     \score {
>       \new StaffGroup <<
>         \new Staff <<
>           %% Include this score tweaks:
>           \scoreTweak "scoreA"
>           { \clef french c''1 \break c''1 }
>         >>
>         \new Staff { \clef soprano g'1 g'1 }
>         \new Staff { \clef mezzosoprano e'1 e'1 }
>         \new Staff { \clef alto g1 g1 }
>         \new Staff { \clef bass c1 c1 }
>       >>
>       \header {
>         piece = "Score with tweaks"
>       }
>       %% Define how to name the tweaks for this score:
>       \layout { #(define tweak-key "scoreA") }
>     }

For the first pass, the `dump-tweaks` option should be set to generate the page layout file.

>     lilypond -dbackend=null -d dump-tweaks <file>.ly
>     lilypond <file>.ly

#### See also

Snippets: Spacing.

### 4.4.5 Vertical collision avoidance

Intuitively, there are some objects in musical notation that belong to the staff and there are other objects that should be placed outside the staff. Objects belonging outside the staff include things such as rehearsal marks, text and dynamic markings (from now on, these will be called outside-staff objects). LilyPond’s rule for the vertical placement of outside-staff objects is to place them as close to the staff as possible but not so close that they collide with another object.

LilyPond uses the `outside-staff-priority` property to determine whether a grob is an outside-staff object: if `outside-staff-priority` is a number, the grob is an outside-staff object. In addition, `outside-staff-priority` tells LilyPond in which order the objects should be placed.

First, LilyPond places all the objects that do not belong outside the staff. Then it sorts the outside-staff objects according to their `outside-staff-priority` (in increasing order). One by one, LilyPond takes the outside-staff objects and places them so that they do not collide with any objects that have already been placed. That is, if two outside-staff grobs are competing for the same space, the one with the lower `outside-staff-priority` will be placed closer to the staff.

>     c4_"Text"\pp
>     r2.
>     \once \override TextScript #'outside-staff-priority = #1
>     c4_"Text"\pp % this time the text will be closer to the staff
>     r2.
>     % by setting outside-staff-priority to a non-number,
>     % we disable the automatic collision avoidance
>     \once \override TextScript #'outside-staff-priority = ##f
>     \once \override DynamicLineSpanner #'outside-staff-priority = ##f
>     c4_"Text"\pp % now they will collide

The vertical padding between an outside-staff object and the previously-positioned grobs can be controlled with `outside-staff-padding`.

>     \once \override TextScript #'outside-staff-padding = #0
>     a'^"This text is placed very close to the note"
>     \once \override TextScript #'outside-staff-padding = #3
>     c^"This text is padded away from the previous text"
>     c^"This text is placed close to the previous text"

By default, outside-staff objects are placed only to avoid a horizontal collision with previously-positioned grobs. This can lead to situations in which objects are placed very close to each other horizontally. The vertical spacing between staffs can also be set so that outside staff objects are interleaved. Setting `outside-staff-horizontal-padding` causes an object to be offset vertically so that such a situation doesn’t occur.

>     % the markup is too close to the following note
>     c4^"Text"
>     c4
>     c''2
>     % setting outside-staff-horizontal-padding fixes this
>     R1
>     \once \override TextScript #'outside-staff-horizontal-padding = #1
>     c,,4^"Text"
>     c4
>     c''2

#### See also

Snippets: Spacing.

## 4.5 Horizontal spacing

### 4.5.1 Horizontal spacing overview

The spacing engine translates differences in durations into stretchable distances (‘springs’) of differing lengths. Longer durations get more space, shorter durations get less. The shortest durations get a fixed amount of space (which is controlled by `shortest-duration-space` in the SpacingSpanner object). The longer the duration, the more space it gets: doubling a duration adds a fixed amount (this amount is controlled by `spacing-increment`) of space to the note.

For example, the following piece contains lots of half, quarter, and 8th notes; the eighth note is followed by 1 note head width (NHW). The quarter note is followed by 2 NHW, the half by 3 NHW, etc.

>     c2 c4. c8 c4. c8 c4. c8 c8
>     c8 c4 c4 c4

Normally, `spacing-increment` is set to 1.2 staff space, which is approximately the width of a note head, and `shortest-duration-space` is set to 2.0, meaning that the shortest note gets 2.4 staff space (2.0 times the `spacing-increment`) of horizontal space. This space is counted from the left edge of the symbol, so the shortest notes are generally followed by one NHW of space.

If one would follow the above procedure exactly, then adding a single 32nd note to a score that uses 8th and 16th notes, would widen up the entire score a lot. The shortest note is no longer a 16th, but a 32nd, thus adding 1 NHW to every note. To prevent this, the shortest duration for spacing is not the shortest note in the score, but rather the one which occurs most frequently.

The most common shortest duration is determined as follows: in every measure, the shortest duration is determined. The most common shortest duration is taken as the basis for the spacing, with the stipulation that this shortest duration should always be equal to or shorter than an 8th note. The shortest duration is printed when you run `lilypond` with the `--verbose` option.

These durations may also be customized. If you set the `common-shortest-duration` in SpacingSpanner, then this sets the base duration for spacing. The maximum duration for this base (normally an 8th), is set through `base-shortest-duration`.

Notes that are even shorter than the common shortest note are followed by a space that is proportional to their duration relative to the common shortest note. So if we were to add only a few 16th notes to the example above, they would be followed by half a NHW:

>     c2 c4. c8 c4. c16[ c] c4. c8 c8 c8 c4 c4 c4

In the introduction (see Engraving), it was explained that stem directions influence spacing. This is controlled with the `stem-spacing-correction` property in the NoteSpacing, object. These are generated for every Voice context. The `StaffSpacing` object (generated in Staff context) contains the same property for controlling the stem/bar line spacing. The following example shows these corrections, once with default settings, and once with exaggerated corrections:

Proportional notation is supported; see Proportional notation.

#### See also

Snippets: Spacing.

Internals Reference: SpacingSpanner, NoteSpacing, StaffSpacing, NonMusicalPaperColumn.

#### Known issues and warnings

There is no convenient mechanism to manually override spacing. The following work-around may be used to insert extra space into a score, adjusting the padding value as necessary.

>      \override Score.NonMusicalPaperColumn #'padding = #10

No work-around exists for decreasing the amount of space.

### 4.5.2 New spacing area

New sections with different spacing parameters can be started with `newSpacingSection`. This is useful when there are sections with a different notions of long and short notes.

In the following example, the time signature change introduces a new section, and hence the 16ths notes are spaced wider.

>     \time 2/4
>     c4 c8 c
>     c8 c c4 c16[ c c8] c4
>     \newSpacingSection
>     \time 4/16
>     c16[ c c8]

The `\newSpacingSection` command creates a new `SpacingSpanner` object, and hence new `\override`s may be used in that location.

#### See also

Snippets: Spacing.

Internals Reference: SpacingSpanner.

### 4.5.3 Changing horizontal spacing

Horizontal spacing may be altered with the `base-shortest-duration` property. Here we compare the same music; once without altering the property, and then altered. Larger values of `ly:make-moment` will produce smaller music. Note that `ly:make-moment` constructs a duration, so `1 4` is a longer duration than `1 16`.

    \score {
      \relative c'' {
        g4 e e2 | f4 d d2 | c4 d e f | g4 g g2 |
        g4 e e2 | f4 d d2 | c4 e g g | c,1 |
        d4 d d d | d4 e f2 | e4 e e e | e4 f g2 |
        g4 e e2 | f4 d d2 | c4 e g g | c,1 |
      }
    }

    \score {
      \relative c'' {
        g4 e e2 | f4 d d2 | c4 d e f | g4 g g2 |
        g4 e e2 | f4 d d2 | c4 e g g | c,1 |
        d4 d d d | d4 e f2 | e4 e e e | e4 f g2 |
        g4 e e2 | f4 d d2 | c4 e g g | c,1 |
      }
      \layout {
        \context {
          \Score
          \override SpacingSpanner
                    #'base-shortest-duration = #(ly:make-moment 1 16)
        }
      }
    }

#### Selected Snippets

By default, spacing in tuplets depends on various non-duration factors (such as accidentals, clef changes, etc). To disregard such symbols and force uniform equal-duration spacing, use `Score.SpacingSpanner #'uniform-stretching`. This property can only be changed at the beginning of a score,

>     \new Score \with {
>       \override SpacingSpanner #'uniform-stretching = ##t
>     } <<
>       \new Staff{
>         \times 4/5 {
>           c8 c8 c8 c8 c8
>         }
>         c8 c8 c8 c8
>       }
>       \new Staff{
>         c8 c8 c8 c8
>         \times 4/5 {
>           c8 c8 c8 c8 c8
>         }
>       }
>     >>

When `strict-note-spacing` is set, notes are spaced without regard for clefs, bar lines, and grace notes,

>     \override Score.SpacingSpanner #'strict-note-spacing = ##t
>     \new Staff { c8[ c \clef alto c \grace { c16[ c] } c8 c c]  c32[ c32] }

#### See also

Snippets: Spacing.

### 4.5.4 Line length

The most basic settings influencing the spacing are `indent` and `line-width`. They are set in the `\layout` block. They control the indentation of the first line of music, and the lengths of the lines.

If `ragged-right` is set to true in the `\layout` block, then systems ends at their natural horizontal length, instead of being spread horizontally to fill the whole line. This is useful for short fragments, and for checking how tight the natural spacing is.

The option `ragged-last` is similar to `ragged-right`, but only affects the last line of the piece. No restrictions are put on that line. The result is similar to formatting text paragraphs. In a paragraph, the last line simply takes its natural horizontal length.

>     \layout {
>       indent = #0
>       line-width = #150
>       ragged-last = ##t
>     }

#### See also

Snippets: Spacing.

### 4.5.5 Proportional notation

LilyPond supports proportional notation, a type of horizontal spacing in which each note consumes an amount of horizontal space exactly equivalent to its rhythmic duration. This type of proportional spacing is comparable to horizontal spacing on top of graph paper. Some late 20th- and early 21st-century scores use proportional notation to clarify complex rhythmic relationships or to facilitate the placement of timelines or other graphics directly in the score.

LilyPond supports five different settings for proportional notation, which may be used together or alone:

- `proportionalNotationDuration`
- `uniform-stretching`
- `strict-note-spacing`
- `\remove Separating_line_group_engraver`
- `\override PaperColumn #'used = ##t`

In the examples that follow, we explore these five different proportional notation settings and examine how these settings interact.

We start with the following one-measure example, which uses classical spacing with ragged-right turned on.

>     \new Score <<
>       \new RhythmicStaff {
>         c'2
>         c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16
>         \times 4/5 {
>           c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16
>         }
>       }
>     >>

Notice that the half note which begins the measure takes up far less than half of the horizontal space of the measure. Likewise, the sixteenth notes and sixteenth-note quintuplets (or twentieth notes) which end the measure together take up far more than half the horizontal space of the measure.

In classical engraving, this spacing may be exactly what we want because we can borrow horizontal space from the half note and conserve horizontal space across the measure as a whole.

On the other hand, if we want to insert a measured timeline or other graphic above or below our score, we need proportional notation. We turn proportional notation on with the proportionalNotationDuration setting.

>     \new Score \with {
>       proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 20)
>     } <<
>       \new RhythmicStaff {
>         c'2
>         c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16
>         \times 4/5 {
>           c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16
>         }
>       }
>     >>

The half note at the beginning of the measure and the faster notes in the second half of the measure now occupy equal amounts of horizontal space. We could place a measured timeline or graphic above or below this example.

The `proportionalNotationDuration` setting is a context setting that lives in `Score`. Recall that context settings appear in one of three locations in our input file – in a `\with` block, in a `\context` block, or directly in music entry preceded by the `\set` command. As with all context settings, users can pick which of the three different locations they would like to set `proportionalNotationDuration`.

The `proportionalNotationDuration` setting takes a single argument, which is the reference duration against which all music will be spaced. The LilyPond Scheme function make-moment takes two arguments – a numerator and denominator which together express some fraction of a whole note. The call `#(ly:make-moment 1 20)` therefore produces a reference duration of a twentieth note. The values `#(ly:make-moment 1 16)`, `#(ly:make-moment 1 8)`, and `#(ly:make-moment 3 97)` are all possible as well.

How do we select the right reference duration to pass to `proportionalNotationDuration`? Usually by a process of trial and error, beginning with a duration close to the fastest (or smallest) duration in the piece. Smaller reference durations space music loosely; larger reference durations space music tightly.

>     \new Score \with {
>       proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 8)
>     } <<
>       \new RhythmicStaff {
>         c'2
>         c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16
>         \times 4/5 {
>           c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16
>         }
>       }
>     >>

>     \new Score \with {
>       proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 16)
>     } <<
>       \new RhythmicStaff {
>         c'2
>         c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16
>         \times 4/5 {
>           c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16
>         }
>       }
>     >>

>     \new Score \with {
>       proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 32)
>     } <<
>       \new RhythmicStaff {
>         c'2
>         c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16
>         \times 4/5 {
>           c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16
>         }
>       }
>     >>

Note that too large a reference duration – such as the eighth note, above – spaces music too tightly and can cause note head collisions. Note also that proportional notation in general takes up more horizontal space that does classical spacing. Proportional spacing provides rhythmic clarity at the expense of horizontal space.

Next we examine how to optimally space overlapping tuplets.

We start by examining what happens to our original example, with classical spacing, when we add a second staff with a different type of tuplet.

>     \new Score <<
>       \new RhythmicStaff {
>         c'2
>         c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16
>         \times 4/5 {
>           c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16
>         }
>       }
>       \new RhythmicStaff {
>         \times 8/9 {
>           c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8
>         }
>       }
>     >>

The spacing is bad because the evenly notes of the bottom staff do not stretch uniformly. Classical engraving includes very few complex triplets and so classical engraving rules can generate this type of result. Setting `proportionalNotationDuration` remedies this situation considerably.

>     \new Score \with {
>       proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 20)
>     } <<
>       \new RhythmicStaff {
>         c'2
>         c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16
>         \times 4/5 {
>           c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16
>         }
>       }
>       \new RhythmicStaff {
>         \times 8/9 {
>           c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8
>         }
>       }
>     >>

But if we look very carefully we can see that notes of the second half of the 9-tuplet space ever so slightly more widely than do the notes of the first half of the 9-tuplet. To ensure uniform stretching, we turn on `uniform-stretching`, which is a property of `SpacingSpanner`.

>     \new Score \with {
>       proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 20)
>       \override SpacingSpanner #'uniform-stretching = ##t
>     } <<
>       \new RhythmicStaff {
>         c'2
>         c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16
>         \times 4/5 {
>           c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16 c'16
>         }
>       }
>       \new RhythmicStaff {
>         \times 8/9 {
>           c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8 c'8
>         }
>       }
>     >>

Our two-staff example now spaces exactly, our rhythmic relationships are visually clear, and we can include a measured timeline or graphic if we want.

Note that the LilyPond’s proportional notation package expects that all proportional scores set the SpacingSpanner’s ’uniform-stretching attribute to ##t. Setting proportionalNotationDuration without also setting the SpacingSpanner’s ’uniform-stretching attribute to ##t will, for example, cause Skips to consume an incorrect amount of horizontal space.

The SpacingSpanner is an abstract grob that lives in the Score context. As with our settings of proportionalNotationDuration, overrides to the SpacingSpanner can occur in any of three different places in our input file – in the Score \with block, in a Score \context block, or in note entry directly.

There is by default only one `SpacingSpanner` per `Score`. This means that, by default, `uniform-stretching` is either turned on for the entire score or turned off for the entire score. We can, however, override this behavior and turn on different spacing features at different places in the score. We do this with the command `\newSpacingSection`. See New spacing area, for more info.

Next we examine the effects of the `Separating_line_group_engraver` and see why proportional scores frequently remove this engraver. The following example shows that there is a small amount of “preferatory” space just before the first note in each system.

>     \paper {
>       indent = #0
>     }

>     \new Staff {
>       c'1
>       \break
>       c'1
>     }

The amount of this preferatory space is the same whether after a time signature, a key signature or a clef. `Separating_line_group_engraver` is responsible for this space. Removing `Separating_line_group_engraver` reduces this space to zero.

>     \paper {
>       indent = #0
>     }

>     \new Staff \with {
>       \remove Separating_line_group_engraver
>     } {
>       c'1
>       \break
>       c'1
>     }

Nonmusical elements like time signatures, key signatures, clefs and accidentals are problematic in proportional notation. None of these elements has rhythmic duration. But all of these elements consume horizontal space. Different proportional scores approach these problems differently.

It may be possible to avoid spacing problems with key signatures simply by not having any. This is a valid option since most proportional scores are contemporary music. The same may be true of time signatures, especially for those scores that include a measured timeline or other graphic. But these scores are exceptional and most proportional scores include at least some time signatures. Clefs and accidentals are even more essential.

So what strategies exist for spacing nonmusical elements in a proportional context? One good option is the `strict-note-spacing` property of `SpacingSpanner`. Compare the two scores below:

>     \new Staff {
>       \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 16)
>       c''8
>       c''8
>       c''8
>       \clef alto
>       d'8
>       d'2
>     }

>     \new Staff {
>       \set Score.proportionalNotationDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 16)
>       \override Score.SpacingSpanner #'strict-note-spacing = ##t
>       c''8
>       c''8
>       c''8
>       \clef alto
>       d'8
>       d'2
>     }

Both scores are proportional, but the spacing in the first score is too loose because of the clef change. The spacing of the second score remains strict, however, because strict-note-spacing is turned on. Turning on strict-note-spacing causes the width of time signatures, key signatures, clefs and accidentals to play no part in the spacing algorithm.

In addition to the settings given here, there are other settings that frequently appear in proportional scores. These include:

- `\override SpacingSpanner #'strict-grace-spacing = ##t`
- `tupletFullLength = ##t`
- `\override Beam #'breakable = ##t`
- `\override Glissando #'breakable = ##t`
- `\override TextSpanner #'breakable = ##t`
- `\remove Forbid_line_break_engraver in the Voice context`

These settings space grace notes strictly, extend tuplet brackets to mark both rhythmic start- and stop-points, and allow spanning elements to break across systems and pages. See the respective parts of the manual for these related settings.

#### See also

Notation Reference: New spacing area.

Snippets: Spacing.

## 4.6 Fitting music onto fewer pages

Sometimes you can end up with one or two staves on a second (or third, or fourth...) page. This is annoying, especially if you look at previous pages and it looks like there is plenty of room left on those.

When investigating layout issues, `annotate-spacing` is an invaluable tool. This command prints the values of various layout spacing variables; for more details see the following section, Displaying spacing.

### 4.6.1 Displaying spacing

To graphically display the dimensions of vertical layout variables that may be altered for page formatting, set `annotate-spacing` in the `\paper` block:

>     #(set-default-paper-size "a6" 'landscape)
>     \book {
>       \score { { c4 } }
>       \paper { annotate-spacing = ##t }
>     }

All layout dimensions are displayed in staff-spaces, regardless of the units specified in the `\paper` or `\layout` block. In the above example, `paper-height` has a value of 59.75 `staff-spaces`, and the `staff-size` is 20 points (the default value). Note that:

1 point | = (25.4/72.27) mm
1 staff-space | = (`staff-size`)/4 pts
| = (`staff-size`)/4 * (25.4/72.27) mm

In this case, one `staff-space` is approximately equal to 1.757mm. Thus the `paper-height` measurement of 59.75 `staff-spaces` is equivalent to 105 millimeters, the height of `a6` paper in landscape orientation. The pairs (a,b) are intervals, where a is the lower edge and b the upper edge of the interval.

#### See also

Setting the staff size Snippets: Spacing.

### 4.6.2 Changing spacing

The output of `annotate-spacing` reveals vertical dimensions in great detail. For details about modifying margins and other layout variables, see Page formatting.

Other than margins, there are a few other options to save space:

- Force systems to move as close together as possible (to fit as many systems as possible onto a page) while being spaced so that there is no blank space at the bottom of the page.

  >     \paper {
  >       between-system-padding = #0.1
  >       between-system-space = #0.1
  >       ragged-last-bottom = ##f
  >       ragged-bottom = ##f
  >     }

- Force the number of systems. This can help in two ways. Just setting a value, even the same value as the number of systems being typeset by default, will sometimes cause more systems to be fitted onto each page, as an estimation step is then bypassed, giving a more accurate fit to each page. Also, forcing an actual reduction in the number of systems may save a further page. For example, if the default layout has 11 systems, the following assignment will force a layout with 10 systems.

  >     \paper {
  >       system-count = #10
  >     }

- Avoid (or reduce) objects that increase the vertical size of a system. For example, volta repeats (or alternate repeats) require extra space. If these repeats are spread over two systems, they will take up more space than one system with the volta repeats and another system without. For example, dynamics that ‘stick out’ of a system can be moved closer to the staff:

  >     e4 c g\f c
  >     \override DynamicText #'extra-offset = #'( -2.2 . 2.0)
  >     e4 c g\f c

- Alter the horizontal spacing via `SpacingSpanner`. For more details, see Changing horizontal spacing. The following example illustrates the default spacing:

  >     \score {
  >       \relative c'' {
  >         g4 e e2 |
  >         f4 d d2 |
  >         c4 d e f |
  >         g4 g g2 |
  >         g4 e e2 |
  >       }
  >     }

  The next example modifies `common-shortest-duration` from a value of `1/4` to `1/2`. The quarter note is the most common and shortest duration in this example, so by making this duration longer, a ‘squeezing’ effect occurs:

  >     \score {
  >       \relative c'' {
  >         g4 e e2 |
  >         f4 d d2 |
  >         c4 d e f |
  >         g4 g g2 |
  >         g4 e e2 |
  >       }
  >       \layout {
  >         \context {
  >           \Score
  >           \override SpacingSpanner
  >             #'common-shortest-duration = #(ly:make-moment 1 2)
  >         }
  >       }
  >     }

  The `common-shortest-duration` property cannot be modified dynamically, so it must always be placed in a `\context` block so that it applies to the whole score.

#### See also

Notation Reference: Page formatting, Changing horizontal spacing.

Snippets: Spacing.

# 5. Changing defaults

The purpose of LilyPond’s design is to provide the finest quality output by default. Nevertheless, it may happen that you need to change this default layout. The layout is controlled through a large number of ‘knobs and switches’ collectively called ‘properties’. A tutorial introduction to accessing and modifying these properties can be found in the Learning Manual, see Tweaking output. This should be read first. This chapter covers similar ground, but in a style more appropriate to a reference manual.

The definitive description of the controls available for tuning can be found in a separate document: the Internals Reference. That manual lists all the variables, functions and options available in LilyPond. It is written as a HTML document, which is available on-line, and is also included with the LilyPond documentation package.

Internally, LilyPond uses Scheme (a LISP dialect) to provide infrastructure. Overriding layout decisions in effect accesses the program internals, which requires Scheme input. Scheme elements are introduced in a `.ly` file with the hash mark `#`.3

## 5.1 Interpretation contexts

This section describes what contexts are, and how to modify them.

#### See also

Learning Manual: Contexts and engravers.

Installed files: ‘`ly/engraver-init.ly`’, ‘`ly/performer-init.ly`’.

Snippets: Contexts and engravers.

Internals Reference: Contexts, Engravers and Performers.

### 5.1.1 Contexts explained

Contexts are arranged hierarchically:

#### Score - the master of all contexts

This is the top level notation context. No other context can contain a Score context. By default the Score context handles the administration of time signatures and makes sure that items such as clefs, time signatures, and key-signatures are aligned across staves.

A Score context is instantiated implicitly when a `\score {…}` or `\layout {…}` block is processed, or explicitly when a `\new Score` command is executed.

#### Top-level contexts - staff containers

StaffGroup

Groups staves while adding a bracket on the left side, grouping the staves together. The bar lines of the contained staves are connected vertically. `StaffGroup` only consists of a collection of staves, with a bracket in front and spanning bar lines.

ChoirStaff

Identical to `StaffGroup` except that the bar lines of the contained staves are not connected vertically.

GrandStaff

A group of staves, with a brace on the left side, grouping the staves together. The bar lines of the contained staves are connected vertically.

PianoStaff

Just like `GrandStaff`, but with support for instrument names to the left of each system.

#### Intermediate-level contexts - staves

Staff

Handles clefs, bar lines, keys, accidentals. It can contain `Voice` contexts.

RhythmicStaff

Like `Staff` but for printing rhythms. Pitches are ignored; the notes are printed on one line.

TabStaff

Context for generating tablature. By default lays the music expression out as a guitar tablature, printed on six lines.

DrumStaff

Handles typesetting for percussion. Can contain `DrumVoice`

VaticanaStaff

Same as `Staff`, except that it is designed for typesetting a piece in gregorian style.

MensuralStaff

Same as `Staff`, except that it is designed for typesetting a piece in mensural style.

#### Bottom-level contexts - voices

Voice-level contexts initialise certain properties and start appropriate engravers. Being bottom-level contexts, they cannot contain other contexts.

Voice

Corresponds to a voice on a staff. This context handles the conversion of dynamic signs, stems, beams, super- and sub-scripts, slurs, ties, and rests. You have to instantiate this explicitly if you require multiple voices on the same staff.

VaticanaVoice

Same as `Voice`, except that it is designed for typesetting a piece in gregorian style.

MensuralVoice

Same as `Voice`, with modifications for typesetting a piece in mensural style.

Lyrics

Corresponds to a voice with lyrics. Handles the printing of a single line of lyrics.

DrumVoice

The voice context used in a percussion staff.

FiguredBass

The context in which `BassFigure` objects are created from input entered in `\figuremode` mode.

TabVoice

The voice context used within a `TabStaff` context. Usually left to be created implicitly.

ChordNames

Typesets chord names.

### 5.1.2 Creating contexts

For scores with only one voice and one staff, contexts are created automatically. For more complex scores, it is necessary to create them by hand. There are three commands that do this.

- The easiest command is `\new`, and it also the quickest to type. It is prepended to a music expression, for example

  >     \new type music expression

  where type is a context name (like `Staff` or `Voice`). This command creates a new context, and starts interpreting the music expression with that.

  A practical application of `\new` is a score with many staves. Each part that should be on its own staff, is preceded with `\new Staff`.

  >     <<
  >       \new Staff { c4 c }
  >       \new Staff { d4 d }
  >     >>

  The `\new` command may also give a name to the context,

  >     \new type = id music

  However, this user specified name is only used if there is no other context already earlier with the same name.

- Like `\new`, the `\context` command also directs a music expression to a context object, but gives the context an explicit name. The syntax is

  >     \context type = id music

  This form will search for an existing context of type type called id. If that context does not exist yet, a new context with the specified name is created. This is useful if the context is referred to later on. For example, when setting lyrics the melody is in a named context

  >     \context Voice = "tenor" music

  so the texts can be properly aligned to its notes,

  >     \new Lyrics \lyricsto "tenor" lyrics

  Another possible use of named contexts is funneling two different music expressions into one context. In the following example, articulations and notes are entered separately,

  >     music = { c4 c4 }
  >     arts = { s4-. s4-> }

  They are combined by sending both to the same `Voice` context,

  >     <<
  >       \new Staff \context Voice = "A" \music
  >       \context Voice = "A" \arts
  >     >>

  With this mechanism, it is possible to define an Urtext (original edition), with the option to put several distinct articulations on the same notes.

- The third command for creating contexts is

  >     \context type music

  This is similar to `\context` with `= id`, but matches any context of type type, regardless of its given name.

  This variant is used with music expressions that can be interpreted at several levels. For example, the `\applyOutput` command (see Running a function on all layout objects). Without an explicit `\context`, it is usually applied to `Voice`

  >     \applyOutput #'context #function   % apply to Voice

  To have it interpreted at the `Score` or `Staff` level use these forms

  >     \applyOutput #'Score #function
  >     \applyOutput #'Staff #function

### 5.1.3 Modifying context plug-ins

Notation contexts (like `Score` and `Staff`) not only store properties, they also contain plug-ins called ‘engravers’ that create notation elements. For example, the `Voice` context contains a `Note_head_engraver` and the `Staff` context contains a `Key_signature_engraver`.

For a full a description of each plug-in, see Engravers and Performers. Every context described in Contexts lists the engravers used for that context.

It can be useful to shuffle around these plug-ins. This is done by starting a new context with `\new` or `\context`, and modifying it,

>     \new context \with {
>       \consists …
>       \consists …
>       \remove …
>       \remove …
>       etc.
>     }
>     {
>       ..music..
>     }

where the … should be the name of an engraver. Here is a simple example which removes `Time_signature_engraver` and `Clef_engraver` from a `Staff` context,

>     <<
>       \new Staff {
>         f2 g
>       }
>       \new Staff \with {
>          \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
>          \remove "Clef_engraver"
>       } {
>         f2 g2
>       }
>     >>

In the second staff there are no time signature or clef symbols. This is a rather crude method of making objects disappear since it will affect the entire staff. This method also influences the spacing, which may or may not be desirable. More sophisticated methods of blanking objects are shown in Visibility and color of objects.

The next example shows a practical application. Bar lines and time signatures are normally synchronized across the score. This is done by the `Timing_translator` and `Default_bar_line_engraver`. This plug-in keeps an administration of time signature, location within the measure, etc. By moving these engraver from `Score` to `Staff` context, we can have a score where each staff has its own time signature.

>     \new Score \with {
>       \remove "Timing_translator"
>       \remove "Default_bar_line_engraver"
>     } <<
>       \new Staff \with {
>         \consists "Timing_translator"
>         \consists "Default_bar_line_engraver"
>       } {
>           \time 3/4
>           c4 c c c c c
>       }
>       \new Staff \with {
>         \consists "Timing_translator"
>         \consists "Default_bar_line_engraver"
>       } {
>            \time 2/4
>            c4 c c c c c
>       }
>     >>

#### Known issues and warnings

Usually the order in which the engravers are specified does not matter, but in a few special cases the order is important, for example where one engraver writes a property and another reads it, or where one engraver creates a grob and another must process it. The order in which the engravers are specified is the order in which they are called to carry out their processing.

The following orderings are important: the `Bar_engraver` must normally be first, and the `New_fingering_engraver` must come before the `Script_column_engraver`. There may be others with ordering dependencies.

### 5.1.4 Changing context default settings

The context settings which are to be used by default in `Score`, `Staff` and `Voice` contexts may be specified in a `\layout` block, as illustrated in the following example. The `\layout` block should be placed within the `\score` block to which it is to apply, but outside any music.

Note that the `\set` command itself and the context must be omitted when the context default values are specified in this way:

>     \score {
>       \relative c'' {
>         a4^"Really small, thicker stems, no time signature" a a a
>         a a a a
>       }
>       \layout {
>         \context {
>           \Staff
>           fontSize = #-4
>           \override Stem #'thickness = #4.0
>           \remove "Time_signature_engraver"
>         }
>       }
>     }

In this example, the `\Staff` command specifies that the subsequent specifications are to be applied to all staves within this score block.

Modifications can be made to the `Score` context or all `Voice` contexts in a similar way.

#### Known issues and warnings

It is not possible to collect context changes in a variable and apply them to a `\context` definition by referring to that variable.

The `\RemoveEmptyStaffContext` will overwrite your current `\Staff` settings. If you wish to change the defaults for a staff which uses `\RemoveEmptyStaffContext`, you must do so after calling `\RemoveEmptyStaffContext`, ie

>     \layout {
>       \context {
>         \RemoveEmptyStaffContext

>         \override Stem #'thickness = #4.0
>       }
>     }

### 5.1.5 Defining new contexts

Specific contexts, like `Staff` and `Voice`, are made of simple building blocks. It is possible to create new types of contexts with different combinations of engraver plug-ins.

The next example shows how to build a different type of `Voice` context from scratch. It will be similar to `Voice`, but only prints centered slash note heads. It can be used to indicate improvisation in jazz pieces,

These settings are defined within a `\context` block inside a `\layout` block,

>     \layout {
>       \context {
>         …
>       }
>     }

In the following discussion, the example input shown should go in place of the … in the previous fragment.

First it is necessary to define a name for the new context:

>     \name ImproVoice

Since it is similar to the `Voice`, we want commands that work on (existing) `Voice`s to remain working. This is achieved by giving the new context an alias `Voice`,

>     \alias Voice

The context will print notes and instructive texts, so we need to add the engravers which provide this functionality,

>     \consists Note_heads_engraver
>     \consists Text_engraver

but we only need this on the center line,

>     \consists Pitch_squash_engraver
>     squashedPosition = #0

The Pitch_squash_engraver modifies note heads (created by Note_heads_engraver) and sets their vertical position to the value of `squashedPosition`, in this case `0`, the center line.

The notes look like a slash, and have no stem,

>     \override NoteHead #'style = #'slash
>     \override Stem #'transparent = ##t

All these plug-ins have to cooperate, and this is achieved with a special plug-in, which must be marked with the keyword `\type`. This should always be `Engraver_group`.

>     \type "Engraver_group"

Put together, we get

>     \context {
>       \name ImproVoice
>       \type "Engraver_group"
>       \consists "Note_heads_engraver"
>       \consists "Text_engraver"
>       \consists Pitch_squash_engraver
>       squashedPosition = #0
>       \override NoteHead #'style = #'slash
>       \override Stem #'transparent = ##t
>       \alias Voice
>     }

Contexts form hierarchies. We want to hang the `ImproVoice` under `Staff`, just like normal `Voice`s. Therefore, we modify the `Staff` definition with the `\accepts` command,

>     \context {
>       \Staff
>       \accepts ImproVoice
>     }

The opposite of `\accepts` is `\denies`, which is sometimes needed when reusing existing context definitions.

Putting both into a `\layout` block, like

>     \layout {
>       \context {
>         \name ImproVoice
>         …
>       }
>       \context {
>         \Staff
>         \accepts "ImproVoice"
>       }
>     }

Then the output at the start of this subsection can be entered as

>     \relative c'' {
>       a4 d8 bes8
>       \new ImproVoice {
>         c4^"ad lib" c
>         c4 c^"undress"
>         c c_"while playing :)"
>       }
>       a1
>     }

### 5.1.6 Aligning contexts

New contexts may be aligned above or below existing contexts. This could be useful in setting up a vocal staff ( Vocal ensembles) and in ossia,

Contexts like `PianoStaff` can contain other contexts nested within them. Contexts which are acceptable for nesting are defined by the “accepts” list of a context. Contexts which are not in this list are placed below the outer context in the printed score. For example, the `PianoStaff` context is defined by default to accept `Staff` and `FiguredBass` contexts within it, but not (for example) a `Lyrics` context. So in the following structure the lyrics are placed below the piano staff rather than between the two staves:

>     \new PianoStaff
>     <<
>       \new Staff { e4 d c2 }
>       \addlyrics { Three blind mice }
>       \new Staff {
>         \clef "bass"
>         { c,1 }
>       }
>     >>

The “accepts” list of a context can be modified to include additional nested contexts, so if we wanted the lyrics to appear between the two staves we could use:

>     \new PianoStaff \with { \accepts Lyrics }
>     <<
>       \new Staff { e4 d c2 }
>       \addlyrics { Three blind mice }
>       \new Staff {
>         \clef "bass"
>         { c,1 }
>       }
>     >>

The opposite of `\accepts` is `\denies`; this removes a context from the “accepts” list.

## 5.2 Explaining the Internals Reference

### 5.2.1 Navigating the program reference

Suppose we want to move the fingering indication in the fragment below:

>     c-2
>     \stemUp
>     f

If you visit the documentation on fingering instructions (in Fingering instructions), you will notice:

> See also

> Internals Reference: Fingering.

Follow the link to Fingering. At the top of the page, you will see

> Fingering objects are created by: Fingering_engraver and New_fingering_engraver.

By following related links inside the program reference, we can follow the flow of information within the program:

- Fingering: Fingering objects are created by: Fingering_engraver
- Fingering_engraver: Music types accepted: fingering-event
- fingering-event: Music event type `fingering-event` is in Music expressions named FingeringEvent

This path goes against the flow of information in the program: it starts from the output, and ends at the input event. You could also start at an input event, and read with the flow of information, eventually ending up at the output object(s).

The program reference can also be browsed like a normal document. It contains chapters on Music definitions, on Translation, and the Backend. Every chapter lists all the definitions used and all properties that may be tuned.

### 5.2.2 Layout interfaces

The HTML page that we found in the previous section describes the layout object called Fingering. Such an object is a symbol within the score. It has properties that store numbers (like thicknesses and directions), but also pointers to related objects. A layout object is also called a Grob, which is short for Graphical Object. For more details about Grobs, see grob-interface.

The page for `Fingering` lists the definitions for the `Fingering` object. For example, the page says

> `padding` (dimension, in staff space):

> `0.5`

which means that the number will be kept at a distance of at least 0.5 of the note head.

Each layout object may have several functions as a notational or typographical element. For example, the Fingering object has the following aspects

- Its size is independent of the horizontal spacing, unlike slurs or beams.
- It is a piece of text. Granted, it is usually a very short text.
- That piece of text is typeset with a font, unlike slurs or beams.
- Horizontally, the center of the symbol should be aligned to the center of the note head.
- Vertically, the symbol is placed next to the note and the staff.
- The vertical position is also coordinated with other superscript and subscript symbols.

Each of these aspects is captured in so-called interfaces, which are listed on the Fingering page at the bottom

> This object supports the following interfaces: item-interface, self-alignment-interface, side-position-interface, text-interface, text-script-interface, font-interface, finger-interface, and grob-interface.

Clicking any of the links will take you to the page of the respective object interface. Each interface has a number of properties. Some of them are not user-serviceable (‘Internal properties’), but others can be modified.

We have been talking of the `Fingering` object, but actually it does not amount to much. The initialization file (see Other sources of information) ‘`scm/define-grobs.scm`’ shows the soul of the ‘object’,

>     (Fingering
>       . ((padding . 0.5)
>          (avoid-slur . around)
>          (slur-padding . 0.2)
>          (staff-padding . 0.5)
>          (self-alignment-X . 0)
>          (self-alignment-Y . 0)
>          (script-priority . 100)
>          (stencil . ,ly:text-interface::print)
>          (direction . ,ly:script-interface::calc-direction)
>          (font-encoding . fetaNumber)
>          (font-size . -5) 		; don't overlap when next to heads.
>          (meta . ((class . Item)
>          (interfaces . (finger-interface
>                         font-interface
>                         text-script-interface
>                         text-interface
>                         side-position-interface
>                         self-alignment-interface
>                         item-interface))))))

As you can see, the `Fingering` object is nothing more than a bunch of variable settings, and the webpage in the Internals Reference is directly generated from this definition.

### 5.2.3 Determining the grob property

Recall that we wanted to change the position of the 2 in

>     c-2
>     \stemUp
>     f

Since the 2 is vertically positioned next to its note, we have to meddle with the interface associated with this positioning. This is done using `side-position-interface`. The page for this interface says

> `side-position-interface`

> Position a victim object (this one) next to other objects (the support). The property `direction` signifies where to put the victim object relative to the support (left or right, up or down?)

Below this description, the variable `padding` is described as

> `padding`

>   (dimension, in staff space)

>   Add this much extra space between objects that are next to each other.

By increasing the value of `padding`, we can move the fingering away from the note head. The following command inserts 3 staff spaces of white between the note and the fingering:

>     \once \override Voice.Fingering #'padding = #3

Inserting this command before the Fingering object is created, i.e., before `c2`, yields the following result:

>     \once \override Voice.Fingering #'padding = #3
>     c-2
>     \stemUp
>     f

In this case, the context for this tweak is `Voice`. This fact can also be deduced from the program reference, for the page for the Fingering_engraver plug-in says

> Fingering_engraver is part of contexts: … Voice

### 5.2.4 Naming conventions

Another thing that is needed, is an overview of the various naming conventions:

scheme functions: lowercase-with-hyphens (incl. one-word names) scheme functions: ly:plus-scheme-style music events, music classes and music properties: as-scheme-functions Grob interfaces: scheme-style backend properties: scheme-style (but X and Y!) contexts (and MusicExpressions and grobs): Capitalized or CamelCase context properties: lowercaseFollowedByCamelCase engravers: Capitalized_followed_by_lowercase_and_with_underscores

Which of these are conventions and which are rules? Which are rules of the underlying language, and which are LP-specific?

## 5.3 Modifying properties

### 5.3.1 Overview of modifying properties

Each context is responsible for creating certain types of graphical objects. The settings used for printing these objects are also stored by context. By changing these settings, the appearance of objects can be altered.

The syntax for this is

>     \override context.name #'property = #value

Here name is the name of a graphical object, like `Stem` or `NoteHead`, and property is an internal variable of the formatting system (‘grob property’ or ‘layout property’). The latter is a symbol, so it must be quoted. The subsection Modifying properties, explains what to fill in for name, property, and value. Here we only discuss the functionality of this command.

The command

    \override Staff.Stem #'thickness = #4.0

makes stems thicker (the default is 1.3, with staff line thickness as a unit). Since the command specifies `Staff` as context, it only applies to the current staff. Other staves will keep their normal appearance. Here we see the command in action:

>     c4
>     \override Staff.Stem #'thickness = #4.0
>     c4
>     c4
>     c4

The `\override` command changes the definition of the `Stem` within the current `Staff`. After the command is interpreted all stems are thickened.

Analogous to `\set`, the context argument may be left out, causing the default context `Voice` to be used. Adding `\once` applies the change during one timestep only.

>     c4
>     \once \override Stem #'thickness = #4.0
>     c4
>     c4

The `\override` must be done before the object is started. Therefore, when altering Spanner objects such as slurs or beams, the `\override` command must be executed at the moment when the object is created. In this example,

>     \override Slur #'thickness = #3.0
>     c8[( c
>     \override Beam #'thickness = #0.6
>     c8 c])

the slur is fatter but the beam is not. This is because the command for `Beam` comes after the Beam is started, so it has no effect.

Analogous to `\unset`, the `\revert` command for a context undoes an `\override` command; like with `\unset`, it only affects settings that were made in the same context. In other words, the `\revert` in the next example does not do anything.

>     \override Voice.Stem #'thickness = #4.0
>     \revert Staff.Stem #'thickness

Some tweakable options are called ‘subproperties’ and reside inside properties. To tweak those, use commands of the form

>     \override context.name #'property #'subproperty = #value

such as

>     \override Stem #'(details beamed-lengths) = #'(4 4 3)

#### See also

Internals: OverrideProperty, RevertProperty, PropertySet, Backend, and All layout objects.

#### Known issues and warnings

The back-end is not very strict in type-checking object properties. Cyclic references in Scheme values for properties can cause hangs or crashes, or both.

### 5.3.2 The `\set` command

Each context can have different properties, variables contained in that context. They can be changed during the interpretation step. This is achieved by inserting the `\set` command in the music,

>     \set context.prop = #value

For example,

>     R1*2
>     \set Score.skipBars = ##t
>     R1*2

This command skips measures that have no notes. The result is that multi-rests are condensed. The value assigned is a Scheme object. In this case, it is `#t`, the boolean True value.

If the context argument is left out, then the current bottom-most context (typically `ChordNames`, `Voice`, or `Lyrics`) is used. In this example,

>     c8 c c c
>     \set autoBeaming = ##f
>     c8 c c c

the context argument to `\set` is left out, so automatic beaming is switched off in the current Voice. Note that the bottom-most context does not always contain the property that you wish to change – for example, attempting to set the `skipBars` property (of the bottom-most context, in this case `Voice`) will have no effect.

>     R1*2
>     \set skipBars = ##t
>     R1*2

Contexts are hierarchical, so if a bigger context was specified, for example `Staff`, then the change would also apply to all `Voice`s in the current stave. The change is applied ‘on-the-fly’, during the music, so that the setting only affects the second group of eighth notes.

There is also an `\unset` command,

>     \unset context.prop

which removes the definition of prop. This command removes the definition only if it is set in context, so

>     \set Staff.autoBeaming = ##f

introduces a property setting at `Staff` level. The setting also applies to the current `Voice`. However,

>     \unset Voice.autoBeaming

does not have any effect. To cancel this setting, the `\unset` must be specified on the same level as the original `\set`. In other words, undoing the effect of `Staff.autoBeaming = ##f` requires

>     \unset Staff.autoBeaming

Like `\set`, the context argument does not have to be specified for a bottom context, so the two statements

>     \set Voice.autoBeaming = ##t
>     \set autoBeaming = ##t

are equivalent.

Settings that should only apply to a single time-step can be entered with `\once`, for example in

>     c4
>     \once \set fontSize = #4.7
>     c4
>     c4

the property `fontSize` is unset automatically after the second note.

A full description of all available context properties is in the program reference, see Tunable context properties.

### 5.3.3 The `\override` command

Commands which change output generally look like

>     \override Voice.Stem #'thickness = #3.0

To construct this tweak we must determine these bits of information:

- the context: here `Voice`.
- the layout object: here `Stem`.
- the layout property: here `thickness`.
- a sensible value: here `3.0`.

Some tweakable options are called ‘subproperties’ and reside inside properties. To tweak those, use commands in the form

>     \override Stem #'(details beamed-lengths) = #'(4 4 3)

For many properties, regardless of the data type of the property, setting the property to false ( `##f` ) will result in turning it off, causing LilyPond to ignore that property entirely. This is particularly useful for turning off grob properties which may otherwise be causing problems.

We demonstrate how to glean this information from the notation manual and the program reference.

### 5.3.4 The `\tweak` command

In some cases, it is possible to take a short-cut for tuning graphical objects. For objects that are created directly from an item in the input file, you can use the `\tweak` command. For example:

    < c
      \tweak #'color #red
      d
      g
      \tweak #'duration-log #1
      a
    > 4
    -\tweak #'padding #8
    -^

But the main use of the `\tweak` command is to modify just one of a number of notation elements which start at the same musical moment, like the notes of a chord, or tuplet brackets which start at the same time.

For an introduction to the syntax and uses of the tweak command see Tweaking methods.

The `\tweak` command sets a property in the following object directly, without requiring the grob name or context to be specified. For this to work, it is necessary for the `\tweak` command to remain immediately adjacent to the object to which it is to apply after the input file has been converted to a music stream. This is often not the case, as many additional elements are inserted into the music stream implicitly. For example, when a note which is not part of a chord is processed, Lilypond implicitly inserts a `ChordEvent` event before the note, so separating the tweak from the note. However, if chord symbols are placed round the tweak and the note, the `\tweak` command comes after the `ChordEvent` in the music stream, so remaining adjacent to the note, and able to modify it.

So, this works:

>     <\tweak #'color #red c>4

but this does not:

>     \tweak #'color #red c4

When several similar items are placed at the same musical moment, the `\override` command cannot be used to modify just one of them – this is where the `\tweak` command must be used. Items which may appear more than once at the same musical moment include the following:

- note heads of notes inside a chord
- articulation signs on a single note
- ties between notes in a chord
- tuplet brackets starting at the same time

and `\tweak` may be used to modify any single occurrence of these items.

Notably the `\tweak` command cannot be used to modify stems, beams or accidentals directly, since these are generated later by note heads, rather than by music elements in the input stream. Nor can a `\tweak` command be used to modify clefs or time signatures, since these become separated from any preceding `\tweak` command in the input stream by the automatic insertion of extra elements required to specify the context.

But the `\tweak` command can be used as an alternative to the `\override` command to modify those notational elements that do not cause any additional implicit elements to be added before them in the music stream. For example, slurs may be modified in this way:

>     c-\tweak #'thickness #5 ( d e f)

Also several `\tweak` commands may be placed before a notational element – all affect it:

>     c
>     -\tweak #'style #'dashed-line
>     -\tweak #'dash-fraction #0.2
>     -\tweak #'thickness #3
>     -\tweak #'color #red
>      \glissando
>     f'

The music stream which is generated from a section of an input file, including any automatically inserted elements, may be examined, see Displaying music expressions. This may be helpful in determining what may be modified by a `\tweak` command.

#### See also

Learning Manual: Tweaking methods.

Notation Reference: Displaying music expressions.

#### Known issues and warnings

The `\tweak` command cannot be used inside a variable.

The `\tweak` commands cannot be used in `\lyricmode`.

The `\tweak` command cannot be used to modify the control points of just one of several ties in a chord, other than the first one encountered in the input file.

### 5.3.5 `\set` vs. `\override`

We have seen two methods of changing properties: `\set` and `\override`. There are actually two different kinds of properties.

Contexts can have properties, which are usually named in `studlyCaps`. They mostly control the translation from music to notation, eg. `localKeySignature` (for determining whether to print accidentals), `measurePosition` (for determining when to print a bar line). Context properties can change value over time while interpreting a piece of music; `measurePosition` is an obvious example of this. Context properties are modified with `\set`.

There is a special type of context property: the element description. These properties are named in `StudlyCaps` (starting with capital letters). They contain the ‘default settings’ for said graphical object as an association list. See ‘`scm/define-grobs.scm`’ to see what kind of settings there are. Element descriptions may be modified with `\override`.

`\override` is actually a shorthand;

>     \override context.name #'property = #value

is more or less equivalent to

>     \set context.name #'property = #(cons (cons 'property value) <previous value of context)

The value of `context` (the alist) is used to initialize the properties of individual grobs. Grobs also have properties, named in Scheme style, with `dashed-words`. The values of grob properties change during the formatting process: formatting basically amounts to computing properties using callback functions.

`fontSize` is a special property: it is equivalent to entering `\override ... #'font-size` for all pertinent objects. Since this is a common change, the special property (modified with `\set`) was created.

## 5.4 Useful concepts and properties

### 5.4.1 Input modes

The way in which the notation contained within an input file is interpreted is determined by the current input mode.

Chord mode

This is activated with the `\chordmode` command, and causes input to be interpreted with the syntax of chord notation, see Chord notation. Chords are rendered as notes on a staff.

Chord mode is also activated with the `\chords` command. This also creates a new `ChordNames` context and causes the following input to be interpreted with the syntax of chord notation and rendered as chord names in the `ChordNames` context, see Printing chord names.

Drum mode

This is activated with the `\drummode` command, and causes input to be interpreted with the syntax of drum notation, see Basic percussion notation.

Drum mode is also activated with the `\drums` command. This also creates a new `DrumStaff` context and causes the following input to be interpreted with the syntax of drum notation and rendered as drum symbols on a drum staff, see Basic percussion notation.

Figure mode

This is activated with the `\figuremode` command, and causes input to be interpreted with the syntax of figured bass, see Entering figured bass.

Figure mode is also activated with the `\figures` command. This also creates a new `FiguredBass` context and causes the following input to be interpreted with the figured bass syntax and rendered as figured bass symbols in the `FiguredBass` context, see Introduction to figured bass.

Fret and tab modes

There are no special input modes for entering fret and tab symbols.

To create tab diagrams, enter notes or chords in note mode and render them in a `TabStaff` context, see Default tablatures.

To create fret diagrams above a staff, you have two choices. You can either use the `FretBoards` context (see Automatic fret diagrams or you can enter them as a markup above the notes using the `\fret-diagram` command (see Fret diagram markups).

Lyrics mode

This is activated with the `\lyricmode` command, and causes input to be interpreted as lyric syllables with optional durations and associated lyric modifiers, see Vocal music.

Lyric mode is also activated with the `\addlyrics` command. This also creates a new `Lyrics` context and an implicit `\lyricsto` command which associates the following lyrics with the preceding music.

Markup mode

This is activated with the `\markup` command, and causes input to be interpreted with the syntax of markup, see Text markup commands.

Note mode

This is the default mode or it may be activated with the `\notemode` command. Input is interpreted as pitches, durations, markup, etc and typeset as musical notation on a staff.

It is not normally necessary to specify note mode explicitly, but it may be useful to do so in certain situations, for example if you are in lyric mode, chord mode or any other mode and want to insert something that only can be done with note mode syntax.

For example, to indicate dynamic markings for the verses of a choral pieces it is necessary to enter note mode to interpret the markings:

>     { c4 c4 c4 c4 }
>     \addlyrics {
>       \notemode{\set stanza = \markup{ \dynamic f 1. } }
>       To be sung loudly
>     }
>     \addlyrics {
>       \notemode{\set stanza = \markup{ \dynamic p 2. } }
>       To be sung quietly
>     }

### 5.4.2 Direction and placement

In typesetting music the direction and placement of many items is a matter of choice. For example, the stems of notes can be directed up or down; lyrics, dynamics, and other expressive marks may be placed above or below the staff; text may be aligned left, right or center; etc. Most of these choices may be left to be determined automatically by LilyPond, but in some cases it may be desirable to force a particular direction or placement.

Default actions

By default some directions are always up or always down (e.g. dynamics or fermata), while other things can alternate between up or down based on the stem direction (like slurs or accents).

Context layout order

Contexts are normally positioned in a system from top to bottom in the order in which they are encountered. Note, however, that a context will be created implicitly if a command is encountered when there is no suitable context available to contain it. When contexts are nested, the outer context will exclude inner contexts which are not included in its “accepts” list; excluded contexts will be repositioned below the outer context.

The default order in which contexts are laid out and the “accepts” list can be changed, see Aligning contexts.

Articulation direction indicators

When adding articulations to notes the direction indicator, `^` (meaning “up”), `_` (meaning “down”) or `-` (meaning “use default direction”), can usually be omitted, in which case `-` is assumed. But a direction indicator is always required before

- `\tweak` commands
- `\markup` commands
- `\tag` commands
- string markups, e.g. -"string"
- fingering instructions, e.g. `-1`
- articulation shortcuts, e.g. `-.`, `->`, `--`

The direction property

The position or direction of many layout objects is controlled by the `direction` property.

The value of the `direction` property may be set to `1`, meaning “up” or “above”, or to `-1`, meaning “down” or “below”. The symbols `UP` and `DOWN` may be used instead of `1` and `-1` respectively. The default direction may be specified by setting `direction` to `0` or `CENTER`. Alternatively, in many cases predefined commands exist to specify the direction. These are all of the form

`\xxxUp`, `xxxDown`, `xxxNeutral`

where `xxxNeutral` means “use the default direction”. See Within-staff objects.

In a few cases, arpeggio being the only common example, the value of the `direction` property specifies whether the object is to be placed to the right or left of the parent object. In this case `-1` or `LEFT` means “to the left” and `1` or `RIGHT` means “to the right”. `0` or `CENTER` means “use the default” direction, as before.

### 5.4.3 Distances and measurements

Distances in LilyPond are of two types: absolute and scaled.

Absolute distances are used for specifying margins, indents, and other page layout details, and are by default specified in millimeters. Distances may be specified in other units by following the quantity by `\mm`, `\cm`, `\in` (inches), or `\pt` (points, 1/72.27 of an inch). Page layout distances can also be specified in scalable units (see the following paragraph) by appending `\staff-space` to the quantity. Page layout is described in detail in Page formatting.

Scaled distances are always specified in units of the staff-space or, rarely, the half staff-space. The staff-space is the distance between two adjacent staff lines. The default value can be changed globally by setting the global staff size, or it can be overridden locally by changing the `staff-space` property of `StaffSymbol`. Scaled distances automatically scale with any change to the either the global staff size or the `staff-space` property of `StaffSymbol`, but fonts scale automatically only with changes to the global staff size. The global staff size thus enables the overall size of a rendered score to be easily varied. For the methods of setting the global staff size see Setting the staff size.

If just a section of a score needs to be rendered to a different scale, for example an ossia section or a footnote, the global staff size cannot simply be changed as this would affect the entire score. In such cases the change in size is made by overriding both the `staff-space` property of `StaffSymbol` and the size of the fonts. A Scheme function, `magstep`, is available to convert from a font size change to the equivalent change in `staff-space`. For an explanation and an example of its use, see Length and thickness of objects.

#### See also

Learning Manual: Length and thickness of objects.

Notation Reference: Page formatting, Setting the staff size.

### 5.4.4 Staff symbol properties

The vertical position of staff lines and the number of staff lines can be defined at the same time. As the following example shows, note positions are not influenced by the staff line positions.

Note: The `'line-positions` property overrides the `'line-count` property. The number of staff lines is implicitly defined by the number of elements in the list of values for `'line-positions`.

>     \new Staff \with {
>       \override StaffSymbol #'line-positions = #'(7 3 0 -4 -6 -7)
>     }
>     { a4 e' f b | d1 }

The width of a staff can be modified. The units are staff spaces. The spacing of objects inside the staff is not affected by this setting.

>     \new Staff \with {
>       \override StaffSymbol #'width = #23
>     }
>     { a4 e' f b | d1 }

### 5.4.5 Spanners

Many objects of musical notation extend over several notes or even several bars. Examples are slurs, beams, tuplet brackets, volta repeat brackets, crescendi, trills, and glissandi. Such objects are collectively called “spanners”, and have special properties to control their appearance and behaviour. Some of these properties are common to all spanners; others are restricted to a sub-set of the spanners.

All spanners support the `spanner-interface`. A few, esentially those that draw a straight line between the two objects, support in addition the `line-spanner-interface`.

#### Using the `spanner-interface`

This interface provides two properties that apply to several spanners.

The `minimum-length` property

The minimum length of the spanner is specified by the `minimum-length` property. Increasing this usually has the necessary effect of increasing the spacing of the notes between the two end points. However, this override has no effect on many spanners, as their length is determined by other considerations. A few examples where it is effective are shown below.

>     a~a
>     a
>     % increase the length of the tie
>     -\tweak #'minimum-length #5
>     ~a

>     a1
>     \compressFullBarRests
>     R1*23
>     % increase the length of the rest bar
>     \once \override MultiMeasureRest #'minimum-length = #20
>     R1*23
>     a1

>     a \< a a a \!
>     % increase the length of the hairpin
>     \override Hairpin #'minimum-length = #20
>     a \< a a a \!

This override can also be used to increase the length of slurs and phrasing slurs:

>     a( a)
>     a
>     -\tweak #'minimum-length #5
>     ( a)

>     a\( a\)
>     a
>     -\tweak #'minimum-length #5
>     \( a\)

For some layout objects, the `minimum-length` property becomes effective only if the `set-spacing-rods` procedure is called explicitly. To do this, the `springs-and-rods` property should be set to `ly:spanner::set-spacing-rods`. For example, the minimum length of a glissando has no effect unless the `springs-and-rods` property is set:

>     % default
>     e \glissando c'

>     % not effective alone
>     \once \override Glissando #'minimum-length = #20
>     e, \glissando c'

>     % effective only when both overrides are present
>     \once \override Glissando #'minimum-length = #20
>     \once \override Glissando #'springs-and-rods = #ly:spanner::set-spacing-rods
>     e, \glissando c'

The same is true of the `Beam` object:

>     % not effective alone
>     \once \override Beam #'minimum-length = #20
>     e8 e e e

>     % effective only when both overrides are present
>     \once \override Beam #'minimum-length = #20
>     \once \override Beam #'springs-and-rods = #ly:spanner::set-spacing-rods
>     e8 e e e

The `to-barline` property

The second useful property of the `spanner-interface` is `to-barline`. By default this is true, causing hairpins and other spanners which are terminated on the first note of a measure to end instead on the immediately preceding bar line. If set to false, the spanner will extend beyond the bar line and end on the note itself:

>     a \< a a a a \! a a a \break
>     \override Hairpin #'to-barline = ##f
>     a \< a a a a \! a a a

This property is not effective for all spanners. For example, seting it to `#t` has no effect on slurs or phrasing slurs or on other spanners for which terminating on the bar line would not be meaningful.

#### Using the `line-spanner-interface`

Objects which support the `line-spanner-interface` include

- `DynamicTextSpanner`
- `Glissando`
- `TextSpanner`
- `TrillSpanner`
- `VoiceFollower`

The routine responsible for drawing the stencils for these spanners is `ly:line-interface::print`. This routine determines the exact location of the two end points and draws a line between them, in the style requested. The locations of the two end points of the spanner are computed on-the-fly, but it is possible to override their Y-coordinates. The properties which need to be specified are nested two levels down within the property hierarchy, but the syntax of the `\override` command is quite simple:

>     e2 \glissando b
>     \once \override Glissando #'(bound-details left Y) = #3
>     \once \override Glissando #'(bound-details right Y) = #-2
>     e2 \glissando b

The units for the `Y` property are `staff-space`s, with the center line of the staff being the zero point. For the glissando, this is the value for `Y` at the X-coordinate corresponding to the center point of each note head, if the line is imagined to be extended to there.

If `Y` is not set, the value is computed from the vertical position of the corresponding attachment point of the spanner.

In case of a line break, the values for the end points are specified by the `left-broken` and `right-broken` sub-lists of `bound-details`. For example:

    \override Glissando #'breakable = ##t
    \override Glissando #'(bound-details right-broken Y) = #-3
    c1 \glissando \break
    f1

A number of further properties of the `left` and `right` sub-lists of the `bound-details` property may be modified in the same way as `Y`:

`Y`

  This sets the Y-coordinate of the end point, in `staff-space`s offset from the staff center line. By default, it is the center of the bound object, so a glissando points to the vertical center of the note head.

  For horizontal spanners, such as text spanners and trill spanners, it is hardcoded to 0.

`attach-dir`

  This determines where the line starts and ends in the X-direction, relative to the bound object. So, a value of `-1` (or `LEFT`) makes the line start/end at the left side of the note head it is attached to.

`X`

  This is the absolute X-coordinate of the end point. It is usually computed on the fly, and overriding it has little useful effect.

`stencil`

  Line spanners may have symbols at the beginning or end, which is contained in this sub-property. This is for internal use; it is recommended that `text` be used instead.

`text`

  This is a markup that is evaluated to yield the stencil. It is used to put cresc., tr and other text on horizontal spanners.

  >     \override TextSpanner #'(bound-details left text)
  >        = \markup { \small \bold Slower }
  >     c2\startTextSpan b c a\stopTextSpan

`stencil-align-dir-y`
`stencil-offset`

  Without setting one of these, the stencil is simply put at the end-point, centered on the line, as defined by the `X` and `Y` sub-properties. Setting either `stencil-align-dir-y` or `stencil-offset` will move the symbol at the edge vertically relative to the end point of the line:

      \override TextSpanner
        #'(bound-details left stencil-align-dir-y) = #-2
      \override TextSpanner
        #'(bound-details right stencil-align-dir-y) = #UP

      \override TextSpanner
        #'(bound-details left text) = #"ggg"
      \override TextSpanner
        #'(bound-details right text) = #"hhh"
      c4^\startTextSpan c c c \stopTextSpan

  Note that negative values move the text up, contrary to the effect that might be expected, as a value of `-1` or `DOWN` means align the bottom edge of the text with the spanner line. A value of `1` or `UP` aligns the top edge of the text with the spanner line.

`arrow`

  Setting this sub-property to `#t` produces an arrowhead at the end of the line.

`padding`

  This sub-property controls the space between the specified end point of the line and the actual end. Without padding, a glissando would start and end in the center of each note head.

The music function `\endSpanners` terminates the spanner which starts on the immediately following note prematurely. It is terminated after exactly one note, or at the following bar line if `to-barline` is true and a bar line occurs before the next note.

>     \endSpanners
>     c2 \startTextSpan c2 c2
>     \endSpanners
>     c2 \< c2 c2

When using `\endSpanners` it is not necessary to close \startTextSpan with \stopTextSpan, nor is it necessary to close hairpins with `\!`.

#### See also

Internals Reference: TextSpanner, Glissando, VoiceFollower, TrillSpanner, line-spanner-interface.

### 5.4.6 Visibility of objects

There are four main ways in which the visibility of layout objects can be controlled: their stencil can be removed, they can be made transparent, they can be colored white, or their `break-visibility` property can be overridden. The first three apply to all layout objects; the last to just a few – the breakable objects. The Learning Manual introduces these four techniques, see Visibility and color of objects.

There are also a few other techniques which are specific to certain layout objects. These are covered under Special considerations.

#### Removing the stencil

Every layout object has a stencil property. By default this is set to the specific function which draws that object. If this property is overridden to `#f` no function will be called and the object will not be drawn. The default action can be recovered with `\revert`.

>     a1 a
>     \override Score.BarLine #'stencil = ##f
>     a a
>     \revert Score.BarLine #'stencil
>     a a a

#### Making objects transparent

Every layout object has a transparent property which by default is set to `#f`. If set to `#t` the object still occupies space but is made invisible.

>     a4 a
>     \once \override NoteHead #'transparent = ##t
>     a a

#### Painting objects white

Every layout object has a color property which by default is set to `black`. If this is overridden to `white` the object will be indistinguishable from the white background. However, if the object crosses other objects the color of the crossing points will be determined by the order in which they are drawn, and this may leave a ghostly image of the white object, as shown here:

>     \override Staff.Clef #'color = #white
>     a1

This may be avoided by changing the order of printing the objects. All layout objects have a `layer` property which should be set to an integer. Objects with the lowest value of `layer` are drawn first, then objects with progressively higher values are drawn, so objects with higher values overwrite objects with lower values. By default most objects are assigned a `layer` value of `1`, although a few objects, including `StaffSymbol` and `BarLine`, are assigned a value of `0`. The order of printing objects with the same value of `layer` is indeterminate.

In the example above the white clef, with a default `layer` value of `1`, is drawn after the staff lines (default `layer` value `0`), so overwriting them. To change this, the `Clef` object must be given in a lower value of `layer`, say `-1`, so that it is drawn earlier:

>     \override Staff.Clef #'color = #white
>     \override Staff.Clef #'layer = #-1
>     a1

#### Using break-visibility

Most layout objects are printed only once, but some like bar lines, clefs, time signatures and key signatures, may need to be printed twice when a line break occurs – once at the end of the line and again at the start of the next line. Such objects are called breakable, and have a property, the `break-visibility` property to control their visibility at the three positions in which they may appear – at the start of a line, within a line if they are changed, and at the end of a line if a change takes place there.

For example, the time signature by default will be printed at the start of the first line, but nowhere else unless it changes, when it will be printed at the point at which the change occurs. If this change occurs at the end of a line the new time signature will be printed at the start of the next line and a cautionary time signature will be printed at the end of the previous line as well.

This behaviour is controlled by the `break-visibility` property, which is explained in Visibility and color of objects. This property takes a vector of three booleans which, in order, determine whether the object is printed at the end of, within the body of, or at the beginning of a line. Or to be more precise, before a line break, where there is no line break, or after a line break.

Alternatively, these eight combinations may be specified by pre-defined functions, defined in ‘`scm/output-lib.scm`’, where the last three columns indicate whether the layout objects will be visible in the positions shown at the head of the columns:

Function | Vector | Before | At no | After
--- | --- | --- | --- | ---
form | form | break | break | break
`all-visible` | `'#(#t #t #t)` | yes | yes | yes
`begin-of-line-visible` | `'#(#f #f #t)` | no | no | yes
`center-visible` | `'#(#f #t #f)` | no | yes | no
`end-of-line-visible` | `'#(#t #f #f)` | yes | no | no
`begin-of-line-invisible` | `'#(#t #t #f)` | yes | yes | no
`center-invisible` | `'#(#t #f #t)` | yes | no | yes
`end-of-line-invisible` | `'#(#f #t #t)` | no | yes | yes
`all-invisible` | `'#(#f #f #f)` | no | no | no

The default settings of `break-visibility` depend on the layout object. The following table shows all the layout objects of interest which are affected by `break-visibility` and the default setting of this property:

Layout object | Usual context | Default setting
--- | --- | ---
`BarLine` | `Score` | calculated
`BarNumber` | `Score` | `begin-of-line-visible`
`BreathingSign` | `Voice` | `begin-of-line-invisible`
`Clef` | `Staff` | `begin-of-line-visible`
`Custos` | `Staff` | `end-of-line-visible`
`DoublePercentRepeat` | `Voice` | `begin-of-line-invisible`
`KeySignature` | `Staff` | `begin-of-line-visible`
`OctavateEight` | `Staff` | `begin-of-line-visible`
`RehearsalMark` | `Score` | `end-of-line-invisible`
`TimeSignature` | `Staff` | `all-visible`

The example below shows the use of the vector form to control the visibility of barlines:

>     f4 g a b
>     f4 g a b
>     % Remove bar line at the end of the current line
>     \once \override Score.BarLine #'break-visibility = #'#(#f #t #t)
>     \break
>     f4 g a b
>     f4 g a b

Although all three components of the vector used to override `break-visibility` must be present, not all of them are effective with every layout object, and some combinations may even give errors. The following limitations apply:

- Bar lines cannot be printed at start of line.
- A bar number cannot be printed at the start of the first line unless it is set to be different from 1.
- Clef – see below
- Double percent repeats are either all printed or all suppressed. Use begin-of line-invisible to print and all-invisible to suppress.
- Key signature – see below
- OctavateEight – see below

#### Special considerations

Visibility following explicit changes

The `break-visibility` property controls the visibility of key signatures and changes of clef only at the start of lines, i.e. after a break. It has no effect on the visibility of the key signature or clef following an explicit key change or an explicit clef change within or at the end of a line. In the following example the key signature following the explicit change to B-flat major is still visible, even though `all-invisible` is set.

>     \key g \major
>     f4 g a b
>     % Try to remove all key signatures
>     \override Staff.KeySignature #'break-visibility = #all-invisible
>     \key bes \major
>     f4 g a b
>     \break
>     f4 g a b
>     f4 g a b

The visibility of such explicit key signature and clef changes is controlled by the `explicitKeySignatureVisibility` and `explicitClefVisibility` properties. These are the equivalent of the `break-visibility` property and both take a vector of three booleans or the predefined functions listed above, exactly like `break-visibility`. Both are properties of the Staff context, not the layout objects themselves, and so they are set using the `\set` command. Both are set by default to `all-visible`. These properties control only the visibility of key signatures and clefs resulting from explicit changes and do not affect key signatures and clefs at the beginning of lines; `break-visibility` must still be overridden in the appropriate object to remove these.

>     \key g \major
>     f4 g a b
>     \set Staff.explicitKeySignatureVisibility = #all-invisible
>     \override Staff.KeySignature #'break-visibility = #all-invisible
>     \key bes \major
>     f4 g a b \break
>     f4 g a b
>     f4 g a b

Visibility of cautionary accidentals

To remove the cautionary accidentals printed at an explicit key change, set the Staff context property `printKeyCancellation` to `#f`:

>     \key g \major
>     f4 g a b
>     \set Staff.explicitKeySignatureVisibility = #all-invisible
>     \set Staff.printKeyCancellation = ##f
>     \override Staff.KeySignature #'break-visibility = #all-invisible
>     \key bes \major
>     f4 g a b \break
>     f4 g a b
>     f4 g a b

With these overrides only the accidentals before the notes remain to indicate the change of key.

Automatic bars

As a special case, the printing of bar lines can also be turned off by setting the `automaticBars` property in the Score context. If set to `#f`, bar lines will not be printed automatically; they must be explicitly created with a `\bar` command. Unlike the `\cadenzaOn` predefined command, measures are still counted. Bar generation will resume according to that count if this property is later set to `#t`. When set to `#f`, line breaks can occur only at explicit `\bar` commands.

Octavated clefs

The small octavation symbol on octavated clefs is produced by the `OctavateEight` layout object. Its visibility is controlled independently from that of the `Clef` object, so it is necessary to apply any required `break-visibility` overrides to both the `Clef` and the `OctavateEight` layout objects to fully suppress such clef symbols at the start of each line.

For explicit clef changes, the `explicitClefVisibility` property controls both the clef symbol and any octavation symbol associated with it.

#### See also

Learning Manual: Visibility and color of objects

### 5.4.7 Line styles

Some performance indications, e.g., rallentando and accelerando and trills are written as text and are extended over many measures with lines, sometimes dotted or wavy.

These all use the same routines as the glissando for drawing the texts and the lines, and tuning their behavior is therefore also done in the same way. It is done with a spanner, and the routine responsible for drawing the spanners is `ly:line-interface::print`. This routine determines the exact location of the two span points and draws a line between them, in the style requested.

Here is an example showing the different line styles available, and how to tune them.

    d2 \glissando d'2
    \once \override Glissando #'style = #'dashed-line
    d,2 \glissando d'2
    \override Glissando #'style = #'dotted-line
    d,2 \glissando d'2
    \override Glissando #'style = #'zigzag
    d,2 \glissando d'2
    \override Glissando #'style = #'trill
    d,2 \glissando d'2

The locations of the end-points of the spanner are computed on-the-fly for every graphic object, but it is possible to override these:

    e2 \glissando f
    \once \override Glissando #'(bound-details right Y) = #-2
    e2 \glissando f

The value for `Y` is set to `-2` for the right end point. The left side may be similarly adjusted by specifying `left` instead of `right`.

If `Y` is not set, the value is computed from the vertical position of the left and right attachment points of the spanner.

Other adjustments of spanners are possible, for details, see Spanners.

### 5.4.8 Rotating objects

Both layout objects and elements of markup text can be rotated by any angle about any point, but the method of doing so differs.

#### Rotating layout objects

All layout objects which support the `grob-interface` can be rotated by setting their `rotation` property. This takes a list of three items: the angle of rotation counter-clockwise, and the x and y coordinates of the point relative to the object’s reference point about which the rotation is to be performed. The angle of rotation is specified in degrees and the coordinates in staff-spaces.

The angle of rotation and the coordinates of the rotation point must be determined by trial and error.

There are only a few situations where the rotation of layout objects is useful; the following example shows one situation where they may be:

>     g4\< e' d' f\!
>     \override Hairpin #'rotation = #'(20 -1 0)
>     g,,4\< e' d' f\!

#### Rotating markup

All markup text can be rotated to lie at any angle by prefixing it with the `\rotate` command. The command takes two arguments: the angle of rotation in degrees counter-clockwise and the text to be rotated. The extents of the text are not rotated: they take their values from the extremes of the x and y coordinates of the rotated text. In the following example the `outside-staff-priority` property for text is set to `#f` to disable the automatic collision avoidance, which would push some of the text too high.

>     \override TextScript #'outside-staff-priority = ##f
>     g4^\markup { \rotate #30 "a G" }
>     b^\markup { \rotate #30 "a B" }
>     des^\markup { \rotate #30 "a D-Flat" }
>     fis^\markup { \rotate #30 "an F-Sharp" }

## 5.5 Advanced tweaks

This section discusses various approaches to fine tuning the appearance of the printed score.

#### See also

Learning Manual: Tweaking output, Other sources of information.

Notation Reference: Explaining the Internals Reference, Modifying properties, Interfaces for programmers.

Installed Files: ‘`scm/define-grobs.scm`’.

Snippets: Tweaks and overrides.

Internals Reference: All layout objects.

### 5.5.1 Aligning objects

Graphical objects which support the `self-alignment-interface` and/or the `side-position-interface` can be aligned to a previously placed object in a variety of ways. For a list of these objects, see self-alignment-interface and side-position-interface.

All graphical objects have a reference point, a horizontal extent and a vertical extent. The horizontal extent is a pair of numbers giving the displacements from the reference point of the left and right edges, displacements to the left being negative. The vertical extent is a pair of numbers giving the displacement from the reference point to the bottom and top edges, displacements down being negative.

An object’s position on a staff is given by the values of the `X-offset` and `Y-offset` properties. The value of `X-offset` gives the displacement from the x coordinate of the reference point of the parent object, and the value of `Y-offset` gives the displacement from the center line of the staff. The values of `X-offset` and `Y-offset` may be set directly or may be set to be calculated by procedures in order to achieve alignment with the parent object in several ways.

Note: Many objects have special positioning considerations which cause any setting of `X-offset` or `Y-offset` to be ignored or modified, even though the object supports the `self-alignment-interface`.

For example, an accidental can be repositioned vertically by setting `Y-offset` but any changes to `X-offset` have no effect.

Rehearsal marks may be aligned with breakable objects such as bar lines, clef symbols, time signature symbols and key signatures. There are special properties to be found in the `break-aligned-interface` for positioning rehearsal marks on such objects.

#### Setting `X-offset` and `Y-offset` directly

Numerical values may be given to the `X-offset` and `Y-offset` properties of many objects. The following example shows three notes with the default fingering position and the positions with `X-offset` and `Y-offset` modified.

>     a-3
>     a
>     -\tweak #'X-offset #0
>     -\tweak #'Y-offset #0
>     -3
>     a
>     -\tweak #'X-offset #-1
>     -\tweak #'Y-offset #1
>     -3

#### Using the `side-position-interface`

An object which supports the `side-position-interface` can be placed next to its parent object so that the specified edges of the two objects touch. The object may be placed above, below, to the right or to the left of the parent. The parent cannot be specified; it is determined by the order of elements in the input stream. Most objects have the associated note head as their parent.

The values of the `side-axis` and `direction` properties determine where the object is to be placed, as follows:

`side-axis` | `direction` |
--- | --- | ---
property | property | Placement
`0` | `-1` | left
`0` | `1` | right
`1` | `-1` | below
`1` | `1` | above

When `side-axis` is `0`, `X-offset` should be set to the procedure `ly:side-position-interface::x-aligned-side`. This procedure will return the correct value of `X-offset` to place the object to the left or right side of the parent according to value of `direction`.

When `side-axis` is `1`, `Y-offset` should be set to the procedure `ly:side-position-interface::y-aligned-side`. This procedure will return the correct value of `Y-offset` to place the object to the top or bottom of the parent according to value of `direction`.

#### Using the `self-alignment-interface`

Self-aligning objects horizontally

The horizontal alignment of an object which supports the `self-alignment-interface` is controlled by the value of the `self-alignment-X` property, provided the object’s `X-offset` property is set to `ly:self-alignment-interface::x-aligned-on-self`. `self-alignment-X` may be given any real value, in units of half the total X extent of the object. Negative values move the object to the right, positive to the left. A value of `0` centers the object on the reference point of its parent, a value of `-1` aligns the left edge of the object on the reference point of its parent, and a value of `1` aligns the right edge of the object on the reference point of its parent. The symbols `LEFT`, `CENTER` and `RIGHT` may be used instead of the values `-1, 0, 1` respectively.

Normally the `\override` command would be used to modify the value of `self-alignment-X`, but the `\tweak` command can be used to separately align several annotations on a single note:

>     a'
>     -\tweak #'self-alignment-X #-1
>     ^"left-aligned"
>     -\tweak #'self-alignment-X #0
>     ^"center-aligned"
>     -\tweak #'self-alignment-X #RIGHT
>     ^"right-aligned"
>     -\tweak #'self-alignment-X #-2.5
>     ^"aligned further to the right"

Self-aligning objects vertically

Objects may be aligned vertically in an analogous way to aligning them horizontally if the `Y-offset` property is set to `ly:self-alignment-interface::y-aligned-on-self`. However, other mechanisms are often involved in vertical alignment: the value of `Y-offset` is just one variable taken into account. This may make adjusting the value of some objects tricky. The units are just half the vertical extent of the object, which is usually quite small, so quite large numbers may be required. A value of `-1` aligns the lower edge of the object with the reference point of the parent object, a value of `0` aligns the center of the object with the reference point of the parent, and a value of `1` aligns the top edge of the object with the reference point of the parent. The symbols `DOWN`, `CENTER`, `UP` may be substituted for `-1, 0, 1` respectively.

Self-aligning objects in both directions

By setting both `X-offset` and `Y-offset`, an object may be aligned in both directions simultaneously.

The following example shows how to adjust a fingering mark so that it nestles close to the note head.

>     a
>     -\tweak #'self-alignment-X #0.5  % move horizontally left
>     -\tweak #'Y-offset #ly:self-alignment-interface::y-aligned-on-self
>     -\tweak #'self-alignment-Y #-1  % move vertically up
>     -3  % third finger

#### Using the `break-alignable-interface`

Rehearsal marks and bar numbers may be aligned with notation objects other than bar lines. These objects include `ambitus`, `breathing-sign`, `clef`, `custos`, `staff-bar`, `left-edge`, `key-cancellation`, `key-signature`, and `time-signature`.

By default, rehearsal marks and bar numbers will be horizontally centered above the object:

>     e1
>     % the RehearsalMark will be centered above the Clef
>     \override Score.RehearsalMark #'break-align-symbols = #'(clef)
>     \key a \major
>     \clef treble
>     \mark "↓"
>     e
>     % the RehearsalMark will be centered above the TimeSignature
>     \override Score.RehearsalMark #'break-align-symbols = #'(time-signature)
>     \key a \major
>     \clef treble
>     \time 3/4
>     \mark "↓"
>     e2.

A list of possible target alignment objects may be specified. If some of the objects are invisible at that point due to the setting of `break-visibility` or the explicit visibility settings for keys and clefs, the rehearsal mark or bar number is aligned to the first object in the list which is visible. If no objects in the list are visible the object is aligned to the bar line. If the bar line is invisible the object is aligned to the place where the bar line would be.

>     e1
>     % the RehearsalMark will be centered above the Key Signature
>     \override Score.RehearsalMark #'break-align-symbols = #'(key-signature clef)
>     \key a \major
>     \clef treble
>     \mark "↓"
>     e
>     % the RehearsalMark will be centered above the Clef
>     \set Staff.explicitKeySignatureVisibility = #all-invisible
>     \override Score.RehearsalMark #'break-align-symbols = #'(key-signature clef)
>     \key a \minor
>     \clef bass
>     \mark "↓"
>     e,

The alignment of the rehearsal mark relative to the notation object can be changed, as shown in the following example. In a score with multiple staves, this setting should be done for all the staves.

>     % The RehearsalMark will be centered above the KeySignature
>     \override Score.RehearsalMark #'break-align-symbols = #'(key-signature)
>     \key a \major
>     \clef treble
>     \time 4/4
>     \mark "↓"
>     e1
>     % The RehearsalMark will be aligned with the left edge of the KeySignature
>     \once \override Score.KeySignature #'break-align-anchor-alignment = #LEFT
>     \mark "↓"
>     \key a \major
>     e
>     % The RehearsalMark will be aligned with the right edge of the KeySignature
>     \once \override Score.KeySignature #'break-align-anchor-alignment = #RIGHT
>     \key a \major
>     \mark "↓"
>     e

The rehearsal mark can also be offset to the right or left of the left edge by an arbitrary amount. The units are staff-spaces:

>     % The RehearsalMark will be aligned with the left edge of the KeySignature
>     % and then shifted right by 3.5 staff-spaces
>     \override Score.RehearsalMark #'break-align-symbols = #'(key-signature)
>     \once \override Score.KeySignature #'break-align-anchor = #3.5
>     \key a \major
>     \mark "↓"
>     e
>     % The RehearsalMark will be aligned with the left edge of the KeySignature
>     % and then shifted left by 2 staff-spaces
>     \once \override Score.KeySignature #'break-align-anchor = #-2
>     \key a \major
>     \mark "↓"
>     e

### 5.5.2 Vertical grouping of grobs

The VerticalAlignment and VerticalAxisGroup grobs work together. VerticalAxisGroup groups together different grobs like Staff, Lyrics, etc. VerticalAlignment then vertically aligns the different grobs grouped together by VerticalAxisGroup. There is usually only one VerticalAlignment per score but every Staff, Lyrics, etc. has its own VerticalAxisGroup.

### 5.5.3 Modifying stencils

All layout objects have a `stencil` property which is part of the `grob-interface`. By default, this property is usually set to a function specific to the object that is tailor-made to render the symbol which represents it in the output. For example, the standard setting for the `stencil` property of the `MultiMeasureRest` object is `ly:multi-measure-rest::print`.

The standard symbol for any object can be replaced by modifying the `stencil` property to reference a different, specially-written, procedure. This requires a high level of knowledge of the internal workings of LilyPond, but there is an easier way which can often produce adequate results.

This is to set the `stencil` property to the procedure which prints text – `ly:text-interface::print` – and to add a `text` property to the object which is set to contain the markup text which produces the required symbol. Due to the flexibility of markup, much can be achieved – see in particular Graphic notation inside markup.

The following example demonstrates this by changing the note head symbol to a cross within a circle.

>     XinO = {
>       \once \override NoteHead  #'stencil = #ly:text-interface::print
>       \once \override NoteHead #'text = \markup {
>         \combine
>           \halign #-0.7 \draw-circle #0.85 #0.2 ##f
>           \musicglyph #"noteheads.s2cross"
>       }
>     }
>     \relative c'' {
>       a a \XinO a a
>     }

Any of the glyphs in the feta Font can be supplied to the `\musicglyph` markup command – see The Feta font.

#### See also

Notation Reference: Graphic notation inside markup, Formatting text, Text markup commands, The Feta font.

### 5.5.4 Modifying shapes

#### Modifying ties and slurs

Ties, slurs and phrasing slurs are drawn as third-order Bézier curves. If the shape of the tie or slur which is calculated automatically is not optimum, the shape may be modified manually by explicitly specifying the four control points required to define a third-order Bézier curve.

Third-order or cubic Bézier curves are defined by four control points. The first and fourth control points are precisely the starting and ending points of the curve. The intermediate two control points define the shape. Animations showing how the curve is drawn can be found on the web, but the following description may be helpful. The curve starts from the first control point heading directly towards the second, gradually bending over to head towards the third and continuing to bend over to head towards the fourth, arriving there travelling directly from the third control point. The curve is entirely contained in the quadrilateral defined by the four control points.

Here is an example of a case where the tie is not optimum, and where `\tieDown` would not help.

>     <<
>       { e1 ~ e }
>     \\
>       { r4 <g c,> <g c,> <g c,> }
>     >>

One way of improving this tie is to manually modify its control points, as follows.

The coordinates of the Bézier control points are specified in units of staff-spaces. The X coordinate is relative to the reference point of the note to which the tie or slur is attached, and the Y coordinate is relative to the staff center line. The coordinates are entered as a list of four pairs of decimal numbers (reals). One approach is to estimate the coordinates of the two end points, and then guess the two intermediate points. The optimum values are then found by trial and error.

It is useful to remember that a symmetric curve requires symmetric control points, and that Bézier curves have the useful property that transformations of the curve such as translation, rotation and scaling can be achieved by applying the same transformation to the curve’s control points.

For the example above the following override gives a satisfactory tie:

>     <<
>       \once \override Tie
>         #'control-points = #'((1 . -1) (3 . 0.6) (12.5 . 0.6) (14.5 . -1))
>       { e1 ~ e1 }
>     \\
>       { r4 <g c,> <g c,> <g c,>4  }
>     >>

#### Known issues and warnings

It is not possible to modify shapes of ties or slurs by changing the `control-points` property if there are more than one at the same musical moment, not even by using the `\tweak` command.

# 6. Interfaces for programmers

Advanced tweaks may be performed by using Scheme. If you are not familiar with Scheme, you may wish to read our Scheme tutorial.

## 6.1 Music functions

This section discusses how to create music functions within LilyPond.

### 6.1.1 Overview of music functions

Making a function which substitutes a variable into LilyPond code is easy. The general form of these functions is

>     function =
>     #(define-music-function (parser location var1 var2...vari... )
>                             (var1-type? var2-type?...vari-type?...)
>       #{
>         ...music...
>       #})

where

vari | ith variable
vari-type? | type of ith variable
...music... | normal LilyPond input, using variables as `#$var1`, etc.

There following input types may be used as variables in a music function. This list is not exhaustive; see other documentation specifically about Scheme for more variable types.

Input type | vari-type? notation
--- | ---
Integer | `integer?`
Float (decimal number) | `number?`
Text string | `string?`
Markup | `markup?`
Music expression | `ly:music?`
A pair of variables | `pair?`

The `parser` and `location` arguments are mandatory, and are used in some advanced situations. The `parser` argument is used to gain access to the value of another LilyPond variable. The `location` argument is used to set the ‘origin’ of the music expression that is built by the music function, so that in case of a syntax error LilyPond can tell the user an appropriate place to look in the input file.

### 6.1.2 Simple substitution functions

Here is a simple example,

>     padText = #(define-music-function (parser location padding) (number?)
>       #{
>         \once \override TextScript #'padding = #$padding
>       #})

>     \relative c''' {
>       c4^"piu mosso" b a b
>       \padText #1.8
>       c4^"piu mosso" d e f
>       \padText #2.6
>       c4^"piu mosso" fis a g
>     }

Music expressions may be substituted as well,

>     custosNote = #(define-music-function (parser location note)
>                                          (ly:music?)
>       #{
>         \once \override Voice.NoteHead #'stencil =
>           #ly:text-interface::print
>         \once \override Voice.NoteHead #'text =
>           \markup \musicglyph #"custodes.mensural.u0"
>         \once \override Voice.Stem #'stencil = ##f
>         $note
>       #})

>     { c' d' e' f' \custosNote g' }

Multiple variables may be used,

>     tempoMark = #(define-music-function (parser location padding marktext)
>                                         (number? string?)
>     #{
>       \once \override Score . RehearsalMark #'padding = $padding
>       \once \override Score . RehearsalMark #'extra-spacing-width = #'(+inf.0 . -inf.0)
>       \mark \markup { \bold $marktext }
>     #})

>     \relative c'' {
>     c2 e
>     \tempoMark #3.0 #"Allegro"
>     g c
>     }

### 6.1.3 Paired substitution functions

Some `\override` commands require a pair of numbers (called a `cons cell` in Scheme). To pass these numbers into a function, either use a `pair?` variable, or insert the `cons` into the music function.

> >     manualBeam =
> >     #(define-music-function (parser location beg-end)
> >                             (pair?)
> >     #{
> >       \once \override Beam #'positions = #$beg-end
> >     #})

> >     \relative {
> >       \manualBeam #'(3 . 6) c8 d e f
> >     }

or

>     manualBeam =
>     #(define-music-function (parser location beg end)
>                             (number? number?)
>     #{
>       \once \override Beam #'positions = #(cons $beg $end)
>     #})

>     \relative {
>       \manualBeam #3 #6 c8 d e f
>     }

### 6.1.4 Mathematics in functions

Music functions can involve Scheme programming in addition to simple substitution,

>     AltOn = #(define-music-function (parser location mag) (number?)
>       #{ \override Stem #'length = #$(* 7.0 mag)
>          \override NoteHead #'font-size =
>            #$(inexact->exact (* (/ 6.0 (log 2.0)) (log mag))) #})

>     AltOff = {
>       \revert Stem #'length
>       \revert NoteHead #'font-size
>     }

>     { c'2 \AltOn #0.5 c'4 c'
>       \AltOn #1.5 c' c' \AltOff c'2 }

This example may be rewritten to pass in music expressions,

>     withAlt = #(define-music-function (parser location mag music) (number? ly:music?)
>       #{ \override Stem #'length = #$(* 7.0 mag)
>          \override NoteHead #'font-size =
>            #$(inexact->exact (* (/ 6.0 (log 2.0)) (log mag)))
>          $music
>          \revert Stem #'length
>          \revert NoteHead #'font-size #})

>     { c'2 \withAlt #0.5 {c'4 c'}
>       \withAlt #1.5 {c' c'} c'2 }

### 6.1.5 Void functions

A music function must return a music expression, but sometimes we may want to have a function which does not involve music (such as turning off Point and Click). To do this, we return a `void` music expression.

That is why the form that is returned is the `(make-music ...)`. With the `'void` property set to `#t`, the parser is told to actually disregard this returned music expression. Thus the important part of the void music function is the processing done by the function, not the music expression that is returned.

>     noPointAndClick =
>     #(define-music-function (parser location) ()
>        (ly:set-option 'point-and-click #f)
>        (make-music 'SequentialMusic 'void #t))
>     ...
>     \noPointAndClick   % disable point and click

### 6.1.6 Functions without arguments

In most cases a function without arguments should be written with an variable,

>     dolce = \markup{ \italic \bold dolce }

However, in rare cases it may be useful to create a music function without arguments,

>     displayBarNum =
>     #(define-music-function (parser location) ()
>        (if (eq? #t (ly:get-option 'display-bar-numbers))
>            #{ \once \override Score.BarNumber #'break-visibility = ##f #}
>            #{#}))

To actually display bar numbers where this function is called, invoke `lilypond` with

>     lilypond -d display-bar-numbers FILENAME.ly

### 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions

The following commands are music functions

`acciaccatura` - music (music)

  Create an acciaccatura from the following music expression

`addChordShape` - key-symbol (symbol) tuning (pair) shape-definition (unknown)

  Add chord shape shape-definition to the chord-shape-table hash with the key (cons key-symbol tuning).

`addInstrumentDefinition` - name (string) lst (list)

  Create instrument name with properties list.

`addQuote` - name (string) music (music)

  Define music as a quotable music expression named name

`afterGrace` - main (music) grace (music)

  Create grace note(s) after a main music expression.

`allowPageTurn`

  Allow a page turn. May be used at toplevel (ie between scores or markups), or inside a score.

`applyContext` - proc (procedure)

  Modify context properties with Scheme procedure proc.

`applyMusic` - func (procedure) music (music)

  Apply procedure func to music.

`applyOutput` - ctx (symbol) proc (procedure)

  Apply function `proc` to every layout object in context `ctx`

`appoggiatura` - music (music)

  Create an appoggiatura from music

`assertBeamQuant` - l (pair) r (pair)

  Testing function: check whether the beam quants l and r are correct

`assertBeamSlope` - comp (procedure)

  Testing function: check whether the slope of the beam is the same as `comp`

`autochange` - music (music)

  Make voices that switch between staves automatically

`balloonGrobText` - grob-name (symbol) offset (pair of numbers) text (markup)

  Attach text to grob-name at offset offset (use like `\once`)

`balloonText` - offset (pair of numbers) text (markup)

  Attach text at offset (use like `\tweak`)

`bar` - type (string)

  Insert a bar line of type type

`barNumberCheck` - n (integer)

  Print a warning if the current bar number is not n.

`bendAfter` - delta (unknown)

  Create a fall or doit of pitch interval delta.

`breathe`

  Insert a breath mark.

`clef` - type (string)

  Set the current clef to type.

`cueDuring` - what (string) dir (direction) main-music (music)

  Insert contents of quote what corresponding to main-music, in a CueVoice oriented by dir.

`displayLilyMusic` - music (music)

  Display the LilyPond input representation of music to the console.

`displayMusic` - music (music)

  Display the internal representation of music to the console.

`endSpanners` - music (music)

  Terminate the next spanner prematurely after exactly one note without the need of a specific end spanner.

`featherDurations` - factor (moment) argument (music)

  Adjust durations of music in argument by rational factor.

`grace` - music (music)

  Insert music as grace notes.

`includePageLayoutFile`

  Include the file <basename>-page-layout.ly. Deprecated as part of two-pass spacing.

`instrumentSwitch` - name (string)

  Switch instrument to name, which must be predefined with `\addInstrumentDefinition`.

`keepWithTag` - tag (symbol) music (music)

  Include only elements of music that are tagged with tag.

`killCues` - music (music)

  Remove cue notes from music.

`label` - label (symbol)

  Create label as a bookmarking label

`makeClusters` - arg (music)

  Display chords in arg as clusters

`musicMap` - proc (procedure) mus (music)

  (undocumented; fixme)

`noPageBreak`

  Forbid a page break. May be used at toplevel (ie between scores or markups), or inside a score.

`noPageTurn`

  Forbid a page turn. May be used at toplevel (ie between scores or markups), or inside a score.

`octaveCheck` - pitch-note (music)

  octave check

`ottava` - octave (number)

  set the octavation

`overrideProperty` - name (string) property (symbol) value (any type)

  Set property to value in all grobs named name. The name argument is a string of the form `"Context.GrobName"` or `"GrobName"`

`pageBreak`

  Force a page break. May be used at toplevel (ie between scores or markups), or inside a score.

`pageTurn`

  Force a page turn between two scores or top-level markups.

`parallelMusic` - voice-ids (list) music (music)

  Define parallel music sequences, separated by ’|’ (bar check signs), and assign them to the identifiers provided in voice-ids.

  voice-ids: a list of music identifiers (symbols containing only letters)

  music: a music sequence, containing BarChecks as limiting expressions.

  Example:

        \parallelMusic #'(A B C) {
          c c | d d | e e |
          d d | e e | f f |
        }
      <==>
        A = { c c | d d | }
        B = { d d | e e | }
        C = { e e | f f | }

`parenthesize` - arg (music)

  Tag arg to be parenthesized.

`partcombine` - part1 (music) part2 (music)

  (undocumented; fixme)

`pitchedTrill` - main-note (music) secondary-note (music)

  (undocumented; fixme)

`pointAndClickOff`

  (undocumented; fixme)

`pointAndClickOn`

  (undocumented; fixme)

`quoteDuring` - what (string) main-music (music)

  (undocumented; fixme)

`removeWithTag` - tag (symbol) music (music)

  Remove elements of music that are tagged with tag.

`resetRelativeOctave` - reference-note (music)

  Set the octave inside a \relative section.

`rightHandFinger` - finger (number or string)

  Apply finger as a fingering indication.

`scaleDurations` - fraction (pair of numbers) music (music)

  Multiply the duration of events in music by fraction.

`scoreTweak` - name (string)

  Include the score tweak, if exists.

`shiftDurations` - dur (integer) dots (integer) arg (music)

  Scale arg up by a factor of 2^dur*(2-(1/2)^dots).

`spacingTweaks` - parameters (list)

  Set the system stretch, by reading the ’system-stretch property of the ‘parameters’ assoc list.

`storePredefinedDiagram` - chord (music) tuning (pair) diagram-definition (unknown)

  Add predefined fret diagram defined by diagram-definition for the chord pitches chord and the stringTuning tuning.

`tag` - tag (symbol) arg (music)

  Add tag to the `tags` property of arg.

`tocItem` - text (markup)

  Add a line to the table of content, using the `tocItemMarkup` paper variable markup

`transposedCueDuring` - what (string) dir (direction) pitch-note (music) main-music (music)

  Insert notes from the part what into a voice called `cue`, using the transposition defined by pitch-note. This happens simultaneously with main-music, which is usually a rest. The argument dir determines whether the cue notes should be notated as a first or second voice.

`transposition` - pitch-note (music)

  Set instrument transposition

`tweak` - sym (symbol) val (any type) arg (music)

  Add `sym . val` to the `tweaks` property of arg.

`unfoldRepeats` - music (music)

  (undocumented; fixme)

`withMusicProperty` - sym (symbol) val (any type) music (music)

  Set sym to val in music.

## 6.2 Programmer interfaces

This section contains information about mixing LilyPond and Scheme.

### 6.2.1 Input variables and Scheme

The input format supports the notion of variables: in the following example, a music expression is assigned to a variable with the name `traLaLa`.

>     traLaLa = { c'4 d'4 }

There is also a form of scoping: in the following example, the `\layout` block also contains a `traLaLa` variable, which is independent of the outer `\traLaLa`.

>     traLaLa = { c'4 d'4 }
>     \layout { traLaLa = 1.0 }

In effect, each input file is a scope, and all `\header`, `\midi`, and `\layout` blocks are scopes nested inside that toplevel scope.

Both variables and scoping are implemented in the GUILE module system. An anonymous Scheme module is attached to each scope. An assignment of the form

>     traLaLa = { c'4 d'4 }

is internally converted to a Scheme definition

>     (define traLaLa Scheme value of `... ')

This means that input variables and Scheme variables may be freely mixed. In the following example, a music fragment is stored in the variable `traLaLa`, and duplicated using Scheme. The result is imported in a `\score` block by means of a second variable `twice`:

    traLaLa = { c'4 d'4 }

    %% dummy action to deal with parser lookahead
    #(display "this needs to be here, sorry!")

    #(define newLa (map ly:music-deep-copy
      (list traLaLa traLaLa)))
    #(define twice
      (make-sequential-music newLa))

    { \twice }

In this example, the assignment happens after parser has verified that nothing interesting happens after `traLaLa = { ... }`. Without the dummy statement in the above example, the `newLa` definition is executed before `traLaLa` is defined, leading to a syntax error.

The above example shows how to ‘export’ music expressions from the input to the Scheme interpreter. The opposite is also possible. By wrapping a Scheme value in the function `ly:export`, a Scheme value is interpreted as if it were entered in LilyPond syntax. Instead of defining `\twice`, the example above could also have been written as

>     ...
>     { #(ly:export (make-sequential-music (list newLa))) }

Scheme code is evaluated as soon as the parser encounters it. To define some Scheme code in a macro (to be called later), use Void functions, or

>     #(define (nopc)
>       (ly:set-option 'point-and-click #f))

>     ...
>     #(nopc)
>     { c'4 }

#### Known issues and warnings

Mixing Scheme and LilyPond variables is not possible with the `--safe` option.

### 6.2.2 Internal music representation

When a music expression is parsed, it is converted into a set of Scheme music objects. The defining property of a music object is that it takes up time. Time is a rational number that measures the length of a piece of music in whole notes.

A music object has three kinds of types:

- music name: Each music expression has a name. For example, a note leads to a NoteEvent, and `\simultaneous` leads to a SimultaneousMusic. A list of all expressions available is in the Internals Reference manual, under Music expressions.
- ‘type’ or interface: Each music name has several ‘types’ or interfaces, for example, a note is an `event`, but it is also a `note-event`, a `rhythmic-event`, and a `melodic-event`. All classes of music are listed in the Internals Reference, under Music classes.
- C++ object: Each music object is represented by an object of the C++ class `Music`.

The actual information of a music expression is stored in properties. For example, a NoteEvent has `pitch` and `duration` properties that store the pitch and duration of that note. A list of all properties available is in the internals manual, under Music properties.

A compound music expression is a music object that contains other music objects in its properties. A list of objects can be stored in the `elements` property of a music object, or a single ‘child’ music object in the `element` property. For example, SequentialMusic has its children in `elements`, and GraceMusic has its single argument in `element`. The body of a repeat is stored in the `element` property of RepeatedMusic, and the alternatives in `elements`.

## 6.3 Building complicated functions

This section explains how to gather the information necessary to create complicated music functions.

### 6.3.1 Displaying music expressions

When writing a music function it is often instructive to inspect how a music expression is stored internally. This can be done with the music function `\displayMusic`

>     {
>       \displayMusic { c'4\f }
>     }

will display

>     (make-music
>       'SequentialMusic
>       'elements
>       (list (make-music
>               'EventChord
>               'elements
>               (list (make-music
>                       'NoteEvent
>                       'duration
>                       (ly:make-duration 2 0 1 1)
>                       'pitch
>                       (ly:make-pitch 0 0 0))
>                     (make-music
>                       'AbsoluteDynamicEvent
>                       'text
>                       "f")))))

By default, LilyPond will print these messages to the console along with all the other messages. To split up these messages and save the results of `\display{STUFF}`, redirect the output to a file.

>     lilypond file.ly >display.txt

With a bit of reformatting, the above information is easier to read,

>     (make-music 'SequentialMusic
>       'elements (list (make-music 'EventChord
>                         'elements (list (make-music 'NoteEvent
>                                           'duration (ly:make-duration 2 0 1 1)
>                                           'pitch (ly:make-pitch 0 0 0))
>                                         (make-music 'AbsoluteDynamicEvent
>                                           'text "f")))))

A `{ ... }` music sequence has the name `SequentialMusic`, and its inner expressions are stored as a list in its `'elements` property. A note is represented as an `EventChord` expression, containing a `NoteEvent` object (storing the duration and pitch properties) and any extra information (in this case, an `AbsoluteDynamicEvent` with a `"f"` text property.

### 6.3.2 Music properties

The `NoteEvent` object is the first object of the `'elements` property of `someNote`.

>     someNote = c'
>     \displayMusic \someNote
>     ===>
>     (make-music
>       'EventChord
>       'elements
>       (list (make-music
>               'NoteEvent
>               'duration
>               (ly:make-duration 2 0 1 1)
>               'pitch
>               (ly:make-pitch 0 0 0))))

The `display-scheme-music` function is the function used by `\displayMusic` to display the Scheme representation of a music expression.

>     #(display-scheme-music (first (ly:music-property someNote 'elements)))
>     ===>
>     (make-music
>       'NoteEvent
>       'duration
>       (ly:make-duration 2 0 1 1)
>       'pitch
>       (ly:make-pitch 0 0 0))

Then the note pitch is accessed through the `'pitch` property of the `NoteEvent` object,

>     #(display-scheme-music
>        (ly:music-property (first (ly:music-property someNote 'elements))
>                           'pitch))
>     ===>
>     (ly:make-pitch 0 0 0)

The note pitch can be changed by setting this ’pitch property,

>     #(set! (ly:music-property (first (ly:music-property someNote 'elements))
>                               'pitch)
>            (ly:make-pitch 0 1 0)) ;; set the pitch to d'.
>     \displayLilyMusic \someNote
>     ===>
>     d'

### 6.3.3 Doubling a note with slurs (example)

Suppose we want to create a function which translates input like `a` into `a( a)`. We begin by examining the internal representation of the music we want to end up with.

>     \displayMusic{ a'( a') }
>     ===>
>     (make-music
>       'SequentialMusic
>       'elements
>       (list (make-music
>               'EventChord
>               'elements
>               (list (make-music
>                       'NoteEvent
>                       'duration
>                       (ly:make-duration 2 0 1 1)
>                       'pitch
>                       (ly:make-pitch 0 5 0))
>                     (make-music
>                       'SlurEvent
>                       'span-direction
>                       -1)))
>             (make-music
>               'EventChord
>               'elements
>               (list (make-music
>                       'NoteEvent
>                       'duration
>                       (ly:make-duration 2 0 1 1)
>                       'pitch
>                       (ly:make-pitch 0 5 0))
>                     (make-music
>                       'SlurEvent
>                       'span-direction
>                       1)))))

The bad news is that the `SlurEvent` expressions must be added ‘inside’ the note (or more precisely, inside the `EventChord` expression).

Now we examine the input,

>     (make-music
>       'SequentialMusic
>       'elements
>       (list (make-music
>               'EventChord
>               'elements
>               (list (make-music
>                       'NoteEvent
>                       'duration
>                       (ly:make-duration 2 0 1 1)
>                       'pitch
>                       (ly:make-pitch 0 5 0))))))

So in our function, we need to clone this expression (so that we have two notes to build the sequence), add `SlurEvents` to the `'elements` property of each one, and finally make a `SequentialMusic` with the two `EventChords`.

>     doubleSlur = #(define-music-function (parser location note) (ly:music?)
>              "Return: { note ( note ) }.
>              `note' is supposed to be an EventChord."
>              (let ((note2 (ly:music-deep-copy note)))
>                (set! (ly:music-property note 'elements)
>                      (cons (make-music 'SlurEvent 'span-direction -1)
>                            (ly:music-property note 'elements)))
>                (set! (ly:music-property note2 'elements)
>                      (cons (make-music 'SlurEvent 'span-direction 1)
>                            (ly:music-property note2 'elements)))
>                (make-music 'SequentialMusic 'elements (list note note2))))

### 6.3.4 Adding articulation to notes (example)

The easy way to add articulation to notes is to merge two music expressions into one context, as explained in Creating contexts. However, suppose that we want to write a music function which does this.

A `$variable` inside the `#{...#}` notation is like using a regular `\variable` in classical LilyPond notation. We know that

>     { \music -. -> }

will not work in LilyPond. We could avoid this problem by attaching the articulation to a fake note,

>     { << \music s1*0-.-> }

but for the sake of this example, we will learn how to do this in Scheme. We begin by examining our input and desired output,

>     %  input
>     \displayMusic c4
>     ===>
>     (make-music
>       'EventChord
>       'elements
>       (list (make-music
>               'NoteEvent
>               'duration
>               (ly:make-duration 2 0 1 1)
>               'pitch
>               (ly:make-pitch -1 0 0))))
>     =====
>     %  desired output
>     \displayMusic c4->
>     ===>
>     (make-music
>       'EventChord
>       'elements
>       (list (make-music
>               'NoteEvent
>               'duration
>               (ly:make-duration 2 0 1 1)
>               'pitch
>               (ly:make-pitch -1 0 0))
>             (make-music
>               'ArticulationEvent
>               'articulation-type
>               "marcato")))

We see that a note (`c4`) is represented as an `EventChord` expression, with a `NoteEvent` expression in its elements list. To add a marcato articulation, an `ArticulationEvent` expression must be added to the elements property of the `EventChord` expression.

To build this function, we begin with

>     (define (add-marcato event-chord)
>       "Add a marcato ArticulationEvent to the elements of `event-chord',
>       which is supposed to be an EventChord expression."
>       (let ((result-event-chord (ly:music-deep-copy event-chord)))
>         (set! (ly:music-property result-event-chord 'elements)
>               (cons (make-music 'ArticulationEvent
>                       'articulation-type "marcato")
>                     (ly:music-property result-event-chord 'elements)))
>         result-event-chord))

The first line is the way to define a function in Scheme: the function name is `add-marcato`, and has one variable called `event-chord`. In Scheme, the type of variable is often clear from its name. (this is good practice in other programming languages, too!)

>     "Add a marcato..."

is a description of what the function does. This is not strictly necessary, but just like clear variable names, it is good practice.

>     (let ((result-event-chord (ly:music-deep-copy event-chord)))

`let` is used to declare local variables. Here we use one local variable, named `result-event-chord`, to which we give the value `(ly:music-deep-copy event-chord)`. `ly:music-deep-copy` is a function specific to LilyPond, like all functions prefixed by `ly:`. It is use to make a copy of a music expression. Here we copy `event-chord` (the parameter of the function). Recall that our purpose is to add a marcato to an `EventChord` expression. It is better to not modify the `EventChord` which was given as an argument, because it may be used elsewhere.

Now we have a `result-event-chord`, which is a `NoteEventChord` expression and is a copy of `event-chord`. We add the marcato to its elements list property.

>     (set! place new-value)

Here, what we want to set (the ‘place’) is the ‘elements’ property of `result-event-chord` expression.

>     (ly:music-property result-event-chord 'elements)

`ly:music-property` is the function used to access music properties (the `'elements`, `'duration`, `'pitch`, etc, that we see in the `\displayMusic` output above). The new value is the former elements property, with an extra item: the `ArticulationEvent` expression, which we copy from the `\displayMusic` output,

>     (cons (make-music 'ArticulationEvent
>             'articulation-type "marcato")
>           (ly:music-property result-event-chord 'elements))

`cons` is used to add an element to a list without modifying the original list. This is what we want: the same list as before, plus the new `ArticulationEvent` expression. The order inside the elements property is not important here.

Finally, once we have added the marcato articulation to its `elements` property, we can return `result-event-chord`, hence the last line of the function.

Now we transform the `add-marcato` function into a music function,

>     addMarcato = #(define-music-function (parser location event-chord)
>                                          (ly:music?)
>         "Add a marcato ArticulationEvent to the elements of `event-chord',
>         which is supposed to be an EventChord expression."
>         (let ((result-event-chord (ly:music-deep-copy event-chord)))
>           (set! (ly:music-property result-event-chord 'elements)
>                 (cons (make-music 'ArticulationEvent
>                         'articulation-type "marcato")
>                       (ly:music-property result-event-chord 'elements)))
>           result-event-chord))

We may verify that this music function works correctly,

>     \displayMusic \addMarcato c4

## 6.4 Markup programmer interface

Markups are implemented as special Scheme functions which produce a Stencil object given a number of arguments.

### 6.4.1 Markup construction in Scheme

The `markup` macro builds markup expressions in Scheme while providing a LilyPond-like syntax. For example,

>     (markup #:column (#:line (#:bold #:italic "hello" #:raise 0.4 "world")
>                       #:larger #:line ("foo" "bar" "baz")))

is equivalent to:

>     \markup \column { \line { \bold \italic "hello" \raise #0.4 "world" }
>                       \larger \line { foo bar baz } }

This example demonstrates the main translation rules between regular LilyPond markup syntax and Scheme markup syntax.

> LilyPond | Scheme
> `\markup markup1` | `(markup markup1)`
> `\markup { markup1 markup2 ... }` | `(markup markup1 markup2 ... )`
> `\command` | `#:command`
> `\variable` | `variable`
> `\center-column { ... }` | `#:center-column ( ... )`
> `string` | `"string"`
> `#scheme-arg` | `scheme-arg`

The whole Scheme language is accessible inside the `markup` macro. For example, You may use function calls inside `markup` in order to manipulate character strings. This is useful when defining new markup commands (see New markup command definition).

#### Known issues and warnings

The markup-list argument of commands such as `#:line`, `#:center`, and `#:column` cannot be a variable or the result of a function call.

    (markup #:line (function-that-returns-markups))

is invalid. One should use the `make-line-markup`, `make-center-markup`, or `make-column-markup` functions instead,

    (markup (make-line-markup (function-that-returns-markups)))

### 6.4.2 How markups work internally

In a markup like

>     \raise #0.5 "text example"

`\raise` is actually represented by the `raise-markup` function. The markup expression is stored as

>     (list raise-markup 0.5 (list simple-markup "text example"))

When the markup is converted to printable objects (Stencils), the `raise-markup` function is called as

>     (apply raise-markup
>            \layout object
>            list of property alists
>            0.5
>            the "text example" markup)

The `raise-markup` function first creates the stencil for the `text example` string, and then it raises that Stencil by 0.5 staff space. This is a rather simple example; more complex examples are in the rest of this section, and in ‘`scm/define-markup-commands.scm`’.

### 6.4.3 New markup command definition

New markup commands can be defined with the `define-markup-command` Scheme macro.

    (define-markup-command (command-name layout props arg1 arg2 ...)
                (arg1-type? arg2-type? ...)
      ..command body..)

The arguments are

argi

  ith command argument

argi-type?

  a type predicate for the ith argument

layout

  the ‘layout’ definition

props

  a list of alists, containing all active properties.

As a simple example, we show how to add a `\smallcaps` command, which selects a small caps font. Normally we could select the small caps font,

>     \markup { \override #'(font-shape . caps) Text-in-caps }

This selects the caps font by setting the `font-shape` property to `#'caps` for interpreting `Text-in-caps`.

To make the above available as `\smallcaps` command, we must define a function using `define-markup-command`. The command should take a single argument of type `markup`. Therefore the start of the definition should read

>     (define-markup-command (smallcaps layout props argument) (markup?)

What follows is the content of the command: we should interpret the `argument` as a markup, i.e.,

>     (interpret-markup layout … argument)

This interpretation should add `'(font-shape . caps)` to the active properties, so we substitute the following for the … in the above example:

>     (cons (list '(font-shape . caps) ) props)

The variable `props` is a list of alists, and we prepend to it by cons’ing a list with the extra setting.

Suppose that we are typesetting a recitative in an opera and we would like to define a command that will show character names in a custom manner. Names should be printed with small caps and moved a bit to the left and top. We will define a `\character` command which takes into account the necessary translation and uses the newly defined `\smallcaps` command:

>     #(define-markup-command (character layout props name) (string?)
>       "Print the character name in small caps, translated to the left and
>       top.  Syntax: \\character #\"name\""
>       (interpret-markup layout props
>        (markup #:hspace 0 #:translate (cons -3 1) #:smallcaps name)))

There is one complication that needs explanation: texts above and below the staff are moved vertically to be at a certain distance (the `padding` property) from the staff and the notes. To make sure that this mechanism does not annihilate the vertical effect of our `#:translate`, we add an empty string (`#:hspace 0`) before the translated text. Now the `#:hspace 0` will be put above the notes, and the `name` is moved in relation to that empty string. The net effect is that the text is moved to the upper left.

The final result is as follows:

>     {
>       c''^\markup \character #"Cleopatra"
>       e'^\markup \character #"Giulio Cesare"
>     }

We have used the `caps` font shape, but suppose that our font does not have a small-caps variant. In that case we have to fake the small caps font by setting a string in upcase with the first letter a little larger:

>     #(define-markup-command (smallcaps layout props str) (string?)
>       "Print the string argument in small caps."
>       (interpret-markup layout props
>        (make-line-markup
>         (map (lambda (s)
>               (if (= (string-length s) 0)
>                   s
>                   (markup #:large (string-upcase (substring s 0 1))
>                           #:translate (cons -0.6 0)
>                           #:tiny (string-upcase (substring s 1)))))
>              (string-split str #\Space)))))

The `smallcaps` command first splits its string argument into tokens separated by spaces (`(string-split str #\Space)`); for each token, a markup is built with the first letter made large and upcased (`#:large (string-upcase (substring s 0 1))`), and a second markup built with the following letters made tiny and upcased (`#:tiny (string-upcase (substring s 1))`). As LilyPond introduces a space between markups on a line, the second markup is translated to the left (`#:translate (cons -0.6 0) ...`). Then, the markups built for each token are put in a line by `(make-line-markup ...)`. Finally, the resulting markup is passed to the `interpret-markup` function, with the `layout` and `props` arguments.

Note: there is now an internal command `\smallCaps` which can be used to set text in small caps. See Text markup commands, for details.

#### Known issues and warnings

Currently, the available combinations of arguments (after the standard layout and props arguments) to a markup command defined with `define-markup-command` are limited as follows.

(no argument)
list
markup
markup markup
scm
scm markup
scm scm
scm scm markup
scm scm markup markup
scm markup markup
scm scm scm

In the above table, scm represents native Scheme data types like ‘number’ or ‘string’.

As an example, it is not possible to use a markup command `foo` with four arguments defined as

>     #(define-markup-command (foo layout props
>                              num1    str1    num2    str2)
>                             (number? string? number? string?)
>       ...)

If you apply it as, say,

>     \markup \foo #1 #"bar" #2 #"baz"

`lilypond` complains that it cannot parse `foo` due to its unknown Scheme signature.

### 6.4.4 New markup list command definition

Markup list commands are defined with the `define-markup-list-command` Scheme macro, which is similar to the `define-markup-command` macro described in New markup command definition, except that where the latter returns a single stencil, the former returns a list stencils.

In the following example, a `\paragraph` markup list command is defined, which returns a list of justified lines, the first one being indented. The indent width is taken from the `props` argument.

>     #(define-markup-list-command (paragraph layout props args) (markup-list?)
>        (let ((indent (chain-assoc-get 'par-indent props 2)))
>          (interpret-markup-list layout props
>            (make-justified-lines-markup-list (cons (make-hspace-markup indent)
>                                                    args)))))

Besides the usual `layout` and `props` arguments, the `paragraph` markup list command takes a markup list argument, named `args`. The predicate for markup lists is `markup-list?`.

First, the function gets the indent width, a property here named `par-indent`, from the property list `props` If the property is not found, the default value is `2`. Then, a list of justified lines is made using the `make-justified-lines-markup-list` function, which is related to the `\justified-lines` built-in markup list command. An horizontal space is added at the beginning using the `make-hspace-markup` function. Finally, the markup list is interpreted using the `interpret-markup-list` function.

This new markup list command can be used as follows:

>     \markuplines {
>       \paragraph {
>         The art of music typography is called \italic {(plate) engraving.}
>         The term derives from the traditional process of music printing.
>         Just a few decades ago, sheet music was made by cutting and stamping
>         the music into a zinc or pewter plate in mirror image.
>       }
>       \override-lines #'(par-indent . 4) \paragraph {
>         The plate would be inked, the depressions caused by the cutting
>         and stamping would hold ink.  An image was formed by pressing paper
>         to the plate.  The stamping and cutting was completely done by
>         hand.
>       }
>     }

## 6.5 Contexts for programmers

### 6.5.1 Context evaluation

Contexts can be modified during interpretation with Scheme code. The syntax for this is

>     \applyContext function

function should be a Scheme function taking a single argument, being the context to apply it to. The following code will print the current bar number on the standard output during the compile:

>     \applyContext
>       #(lambda (x)
>         (format #t "\nWe were called in barnumber ~a.\n"
>          (ly:context-property x 'currentBarNumber)))

### 6.5.2 Running a function on all layout objects

The most versatile way of tuning an object is `\applyOutput`. Its syntax is

>     \applyOutput context proc

where proc is a Scheme function, taking three arguments.

When interpreted, the function proc is called for every layout object found in the context context, with the following arguments:

- the layout object itself,
- the context where the layout object was created, and
- the context where `\applyOutput` is processed.

In addition, the cause of the layout object, i.e., the music expression or object that was responsible for creating it, is in the object property `cause`. For example, for a note head, this is a NoteHead event, and for a Stem object, this is a NoteHead object.

Here is a function to use for `\applyOutput`; it blanks note-heads on the center-line:

>     (define (blanker grob grob-origin context)
>      (if (and (memq (ly:grob-property grob 'interfaces)
>                     note-head-interface)
>               (eq? (ly:grob-property grob 'staff-position) 0))
>          (set! (ly:grob-property grob 'transparent) #t)))

## 6.6 Scheme procedures as properties

Properties (like thickness, direction, etc.) can be set at fixed values with \override, e.g.

>     \override Stem #'thickness = #2.0

Properties can also be set to a Scheme procedure,

>     \override Stem #'thickness = #(lambda (grob)
>         (if (= UP (ly:grob-property grob 'direction))
>             2.0
>             7.0))
>     c b a g b a g b

In this case, the procedure is executed as soon as the value of the property is requested during the formatting process.

Most of the typesetting engine is driven by such callbacks. Properties that typically use callbacks include

`stencil`

  The printing routine, that constructs a drawing for the symbol

`X-offset`

  The routine that sets the horizontal position

`X-extent`

  The routine that computes the width of an object

The procedure always takes a single argument, being the grob.

If routines with multiple arguments must be called, the current grob can be inserted with a grob closure. Here is a setting from `AccidentalSuggestion`,

>     (X-offset .
>       ,(ly:make-simple-closure
>         `(,+
>             ,(ly:make-simple-closure
>                (list ly:self-alignment-interface::centered-on-x-parent))
>           ,(ly:make-simple-closure
>                (list ly:self-alignment-interface::x-aligned-on-self)))))

In this example, both `ly:self-alignment-interface::x-aligned-on-self` and `ly:self-alignment-interface::centered-on-x-parent` are called with the grob as argument. The results are added with the `+` function. To ensure that this addition is properly executed, the whole thing is enclosed in `ly:make-simple-closure`.

In fact, using a single procedure as property value is equivalent to

>     (ly:make-simple-closure (ly:make-simple-closure (list proc)))

The inner `ly:make-simple-closure` supplies the grob as argument to proc, the outer ensures that result of the function is returned, rather than the `simple-closure` object.

## 6.7 Using Scheme code instead of `\tweak`

The main disadvantage of `\tweak` is its syntactical inflexibility. For example, the following produces a syntax error.

>     F = \tweak #'font-size #-3 -\flageolet

>     \relative c'' {
>       c4^\F c4_\F
>     }

With other words, `\tweak` doesn’t behave like an articulation regarding the syntax; in particular, it can’t be attached with `^` and `_`.

Using Scheme, this problem can be circumvented. The route to the result is given in Adding articulation to notes (example), especially how to use `\displayMusic` as a helping guide.

>     F = #(let ((m (make-music 'ArticulationEvent
>                               'articulation-type "flageolet")))
>            (set! (ly:music-property m 'tweaks)
>                  (acons 'font-size -3
>                         (ly:music-property m 'tweaks)))
>            m)

>     \relative c'' {
>       c4^\F c4_\F
>     }

Here, the `tweaks` properties of the flageolet object `m` (created with `make-music`) are extracted with `ly:music-property`, a new key-value pair to change the font size is prepended to the property list with the `acons` Scheme function, and the result is finally written back with `set!`. The last element of the `let` block is the return value, `m` itself.

## 6.8 Difficult tweaks

There are a few classes of difficult adjustments.

- One type of difficult adjustment is the appearance of spanner objects, such as slur and tie. Initially, only one of these objects is created, and they can be adjusted with the normal mechanism. However, in some cases the spanners cross line breaks. If this happens, these objects are cloned. A separate object is created for every system that it is in. These are clones of the original object and inherit all properties, including `\override`s.

  In other words, an `\override` always affects all pieces of a broken spanner. To change only one part of a spanner at a line break, it is necessary to hook into the formatting process. The `after-line-breaking` callback contains the Scheme procedure that is called after the line breaks have been determined, and layout objects have been split over different systems.

  In the following example, we define a procedure `my-callback`. This procedure

  - determines if we have been split across line breaks
  - if yes, retrieves all the split objects
  - checks if we are the last of the split objects
  - if yes, it sets `extra-offset`.

  This procedure is installed into Tie, so the last part of the broken tie is translated up.

  >     #(define (my-callback grob)
  >       (let* (
  >              ; have we been split?
  >              (orig (ly:grob-original grob))

  >              ; if yes, get the split pieces (our siblings)
  >              (siblings (if (ly:grob? orig)
  >                          (ly:spanner-broken-into orig) '() )))

  >        (if (and (>= (length siblings) 2)
  >                  (eq? (car (last-pair siblings)) grob))
  >          (ly:grob-set-property! grob 'extra-offset '(-2 . 5)))))

  >     \relative c'' {
  >       \override Tie #'after-line-breaking =
  >       #my-callback
  >       c1 ~ \break c2 ~ c
  >     }

  When applying this trick, the new `after-line-breaking` callback should also call the old one `after-line-breaking`, if there is one. For example, if using this with `Hairpin`, `ly:hairpin::after-line-breaking` should also be called.

- Some objects cannot be changed with `\override` for technical reasons. Examples of those are `NonMusicalPaperColumn` and `PaperColumn`. They can be changed with the `\overrideProperty` function, which works similar to `\once \override`, but uses a different syntax.

  >     \overrideProperty
  >     #"Score.NonMusicalPaperColumn"  % Grob name
  >     #'line-break-system-details     % Property name
  >     #'((next-padding . 20))         % Value

  Note, however, that `\override`, applied to `NonMusicalPaperColumn` and `PaperColumn`, still works as expected within `\context` blocks.

# A. Literature list

If you need to know more about music notation, here are some interesting titles to read.

Ignatzek 1995

  Klaus Ignatzek, Die Jazzmethode für Klavier. Schott’s Söhne 1995. Mainz, Germany ISBN 3-7957-5140-3.

  A tutorial introduction to playing Jazz on the piano. One of the first chapters contains an overview of chords in common use for Jazz music.

Gerou 1996

  Tom Gerou and Linda Lusk, Essential Dictionary of Music Notation. Alfred Publishing, Van Nuys CA ISBN 0-88284-768-6.

  A concise, alphabetically ordered list of typesetting and music (notation) issues, covering most of the normal cases.

Read 1968

  Gardner Read, Music Notation: A Manual of Modern Practice. Taplinger Publishing, New York (2nd edition).

  A standard work on music notation.

Ross 1987

  Ted Ross, Teach yourself the art of music engraving and processing. Hansen House, Miami, Florida 1987.

  This book is about music engraving, i.e., professional typesetting. It contains directions on stamping, use of pens and notational conventions. The sections on reproduction technicalities and history are also interesting.

Schirmer 2001

  The G.Schirmer/AMP Manual of Style and Usage. G.Schirmer/AMP, NY, 2001. (This book can be ordered from the rental department.)

  This manual specifically focuses on preparing print for publication by Schirmer. It discusses many details that are not in other, normal notation books. It also gives a good idea of what is necessary to bring printouts to publication quality.

Stone 1980

  Kurt Stone, Music Notation in the Twentieth Century. Norton, New York 1980.

  This book describes music notation for modern serious music, but starts out with a thorough overview of existing traditional notation practices.

The source archive includes a more elaborate BibTeX bibliography of over 100 entries in the bibliography.

# B. Notation manual tables

## B.1 Chord name chart

The following charts shows two standard systems for printing chord names, along with the pitches they represent.

## B.2 Common chord modifiers

The following table shows chord modifiers that can be used in `\chordmode` to generate standard chord structures.

Chord type | Intervals | Modifier(s) | Example
Major | Major third, perfect fifth | `5` or nothing |
Minor | Minor third, perfect fifth | `m` or `m5` |
Augmented | Major third, augmented fifth | `aug` |
Diminished | Minor third, diminished fifth | `dim` |
Dominant seventh | Major triad, minor seventh | `7` |
Major seventh | Major triad, major seventh | `maj7` or `maj` |
Minor seventh | Minor triad, minor seventh | `m7` |
Diminished seventh | Diminished triad, diminished seventh | `dim7` |
Augmented seventh | Augmented triad, minor seventh | `aug7` |
Half-diminished seventh | Diminished triad, minor seventh | `m7.5-` |
Minor-major seventh | Minor triad, major seventh | `maj7.5-` |
Major sixth | Major triad, sixth | `6` |
Minor sixth | Minor triad, sixth | `m6` |
Dominant ninth | Dominant seventh, major ninth | `9` |
Major ninth | Major seventh, major ninth | `maj9` |
Minor ninth | Minor seventh, major ninth | `m9` |
Dominant eleventh | Dominant ninth, perfect eleventh | `11` |
Major eleventh | Major ninth, perfect eleventh | `maj11` |
Minor eleventh | Minor ninth, perfect eleventh | `m11` |
Dominant thirteenth | Dominant ninth, major thirteenth | `13` |
Dominant thirteenth | Dominant eleventh, major thirteenth | `13.11` |
Major thirteenth | Major eleventh, major thirteenth | `maj13.11` |
Minor thirteenth | Minor eleventh, major thirteenth | `m13.11` |
Suspended second | Major second, perfect fifth | `sus2` |
Suspended fourth | Perfect fourth, perfect fifth | `sus4` |

## B.3 Predefined fretboard diagrams

The chart below shows the predefined fretboard diagrams.

## B.4 MIDI instruments

The following is a list of names that can be used for the `midiInstrument` property.

>     acoustic grand            contrabass           lead 7 (fifths)
>     bright acoustic           tremolo strings      lead 8 (bass+lead)
>     electric grand            pizzicato strings    pad 1 (new age)
>     honky-tonk                orchestral strings   pad 2 (warm)
>     electric piano 1          timpani              pad 3 (polysynth)
>     electric piano 2          string ensemble 1    pad 4 (choir)
>     harpsichord               string ensemble 2    pad 5 (bowed)
>     clav                      synthstrings 1       pad 6 (metallic)
>     celesta                   synthstrings 2       pad 7 (halo)
>     glockenspiel              choir aahs           pad 8 (sweep)
>     music box                 voice oohs           fx 1 (rain)
>     vibraphone                synth voice          fx 2 (soundtrack)
>     marimba                   orchestra hit        fx 3 (crystal)
>     xylophone                 trumpet              fx 4 (atmosphere)
>     tubular bells             trombone             fx 5 (brightness)
>     dulcimer                  tuba                 fx 6 (goblins)
>     drawbar organ             muted trumpet        fx 7 (echoes)
>     percussive organ          french horn          fx 8 (sci-fi)
>     rock organ                brass section        sitar
>     church organ              synthbrass 1         banjo
>     reed organ                synthbrass 2         shamisen
>     accordion                 soprano sax          koto
>     harmonica                 alto sax             kalimba
>     concertina                tenor sax            bagpipe
>     acoustic guitar (nylon)   baritone sax         fiddle
>     acoustic guitar (steel)   oboe                 shanai
>     electric guitar (jazz)    english horn         tinkle bell
>     electric guitar (clean)   bassoon              agogo
>     electric guitar (muted)   clarinet             steel drums
>     overdriven guitar         piccolo              woodblock
>     distorted guitar          flute                taiko drum
>     guitar harmonics          recorder             melodic tom
>     acoustic bass             pan flute            synth drum
>     electric bass (finger)    blown bottle         reverse cymbal
>     electric bass (pick)      shakuhachi           guitar fret noise
>     fretless bass             whistle              breath noise
>     slap bass 1               ocarina              seashore
>     slap bass 2               lead 1 (square)      bird tweet
>     synth bass 1              lead 2 (sawtooth)    telephone ring
>     synth bass 2              lead 3 (calliope)    helicopter
>     violin                    lead 4 (chiff)       applause
>     viola                     lead 5 (charang)     gunshot
>     cello                     lead 6 (voice)

## B.5 List of colors

#### Normal colors

Usage syntax is detailed in Coloring objects.

    black       white          red         green
    blue        cyan           magenta     yellow
    grey        darkred        darkgreen   darkblue
    darkcyan    darkmagenta    darkyellow

#### X color names

X color names come several variants:

Any name that is spelled as a single word with capitalization (e.g. ‘LightSlateBlue’) can also be spelled as space separated words without capitalization (e.g. ‘light slate blue’).

The word ‘grey’ can always be spelled ‘gray’ (e.g. ‘DarkSlateGray’).

Some names can take a numerical suffix (e.g. ‘LightSalmon4’).

#### Color Names without a numerical suffix:

    snow		GhostWhite	WhiteSmoke	gainsboro	FloralWhite
    OldLace		linen		AntiqueWhite	PapayaWhip	BlanchedAlmond
    bisque		PeachPuff	NavajoWhite	moccasin	cornsilk
    ivory		LemonChiffon	seashell	honeydew	MintCream
    azure		AliceBlue	lavender	LavenderBlush	MistyRose
    white		black		DarkSlateGrey	DimGrey		SlateGrey
    LightSlateGrey	grey		LightGrey	MidnightBlue	navy
    NavyBlue	CornflowerBlue	DarkSlateBlue	SlateBlue	MediumSlateBlue
    LightSlateBlue	MediumBlue	RoyalBlue	blue		DodgerBlue
    DeepSkyBlue	SkyBlue		LightSkyBlue	SteelBlue	LightSteelBlue
    LightBlue	PowderBlue	PaleTurquoise	DarkTurquoise	MediumTurquoise
    turquoise	cyan		LightCyan	CadetBlue	MediumAquamarine
    aquamarine	DarkGreen	DarkOliveGreen	DarkSeaGreen	SeaGreen
    MediumSeaGreen	LightSeaGreen	PaleGreen	SpringGreen	LawnGreen
    green		chartreuse	MediumSpringGreen	GreenYellow	LimeGreen
    YellowGreen	ForestGreen	OliveDrab	DarkKhaki	khaki
    PaleGoldenrod	LightGoldenrodYellow	LightYellow	yellow	gold
    LightGoldenrod	goldenrod	DarkGoldenrod	RosyBrown	IndianRed
    SaddleBrown	sienna		peru		burlywood	beige
    wheat		SandyBrown	tan		chocolate	firebrick
    brown		DarkSalmon	salmon		LightSalmon	orange
    DarkOrange	coral		LightCoral	tomato		OrangeRed
    red		HotPink		DeepPink	pink		LightPink
    PaleVioletRed	maroon		MediumVioletRed	VioletRed	magenta
    violet		plum		orchid		MediumOrchid	DarkOrchid
    DarkViolet	BlueViolet	purple		MediumPurple	thistle
    DarkGrey	DarkBlue	DarkCyan	DarkMagenta	DarkRed
    LightGreen

#### Color names with a numerical suffix

In the following names the suffix N can be a number in the range 1-4:

    snowN		seashellN	AntiqueWhiteN	bisqueN		PeachPuffN
    NavajoWhiteN	LemonChiffonN	cornsilkN	ivoryN		honeydewN
    LavenderBlushN	MistyRoseN	azureN		SlateBlueN	RoyalBlueN
    blueN		DodgerBlueN	SteelBlueN	DeepSkyBlueN	SkyBlueN
    LightSkyBlueN	LightSteelBlueN	LightBlueN	LightCyanN	PaleTurquoiseN
    CadetBlueN	turquoiseN	cyanN		aquamarineN	DarkSeaGreenN
    SeaGreenN	PaleGreenN	SpringGreenN	greenN		chartreuseN
    OliveDrabN	DarkOliveGreenN	khakiN		LightGoldenrodN	LightYellowN
    yellowN		goldN		goldenrodN	DarkGoldenrodN	RosyBrownN
    IndianRedN	siennaN		burlywoodN	wheatN		tanN
    chocolateN	firebrickN	brownN		salmonN		LightSalmonN
    orangeN		DarkOrangeN	coralN		tomatoN		OrangeRedN
    redN		DeepPinkN	HotPinkN	pinkN		LightPinkN
    PaleVioletRedN	maroonN		VioletRedN	magentaN	orchidN
    plumN		MediumOrchidN	DarkOrchidN	purpleN		MediumPurpleN
    thistleN

#### Grey Scale

A grey scale can be obtained using:

>     greyN

Where N is in the range 0-100.

## B.6 The Feta font

The following symbols are available in the Emmentaler font and may be accessed directly using text markup such as `g^\markup { \musicglyph #"scripts.segno" }`, see Formatting text.

### Clef glyphs

### Time Signature glyphs

### Number glyphs

### Accidental glyphs

### Default Notehead glyphs

### Special Notehead glyphs

### Shape-note Notehead glyphs

### Rest glyphs

### Flag glyphs

### Dot glyphs

### Dynamic glyphs

### Script glyphs

### Arrowhead glyphs

### Bracket-tip glyphs

### Pedal glyphs

### Accordion glyphs

### Vaticana glyphs

### Medicaea glyphs

### Hufnagel glyphs

### Mensural glyphs

### Neomensural glyphs

### Petrucci glyphs

### Solesmes glyphs

## B.7 Note head styles

The following styles may be used for note heads.

## B.8 Text markup commands

The following commands can all be used inside `\markup { }`.

### B.8.1 Font

`\abs-fontsize` size (number) arg (markup)

  Use size as the absolute font size to display arg. Adjusts `baseline-skip` and `word-space` accordingly.

  >     \markup {
  >       default text font size
  >       \hspace #2
  >       \abs-fontsize #16 { text font size 16 }
  >       \hspace #2
  >       \abs-fontsize #12 { text font size 12 }
  >     }

`\bold` arg (markup)

  Switch to bold font-series.

  >     \markup {
  >       default
  >       \hspace #2
  >       \bold
  >       bold
  >     }

`\box` arg (markup)

  Draw a box round arg. Looks at `thickness`, `box-padding` and `font-size` properties to determine line thickness and padding around the markup.

  >     \markup {
  >       \override #'(box-padding . 0.5)
  >       \box
  >       \line { V. S. }
  >     }

  Used properties:

  - `box-padding` (0.2)
  - `font-size` (0)
  - `thickness` (1)
`\caps` arg (markup)

  Copy of the `\smallCaps` command.

  >     \markup {
  >       default
  >       \hspace #2
  >       \caps {
  >         Text in small caps
  >       }
  >     }

`\dynamic` arg (markup)

  Use the dynamic font. This font only contains s, f, m, z, p, and r. When producing phrases, like ‘più f’, the normal words (like ‘più’) should be done in a different font. The recommended font for this is bold and italic.

  >     \markup {
  >       \dynamic {
  >         sfzp
  >       }
  >     }

`\finger` arg (markup)

  Set arg as small numbers.

  >     \markup {
  >       \finger {
  >         1 2 3 4 5
  >       }
  >     }

`\fontCaps` arg (markup)

  Set `font-shape` to `caps`

  Note: `\fontCaps` requires the installation and selection of fonts which support the `caps` font shape.

`\fontsize` increment (number) arg (markup)

  Add increment to the font-size. Adjusts `baseline-skip` accordingly.

  >     \markup {
  >       default
  >       \hspace #2
  >       \fontsize #-1.5
  >       smaller
  >     }

  Used properties:

  - `baseline-skip` (2)
  - `word-space` (1)
  - `font-size` (0)
`\huge` arg (markup)

  Set font size to +2.

  >     \markup {
  >       default
  >       \hspace #2
  >       \huge
  >       huge
  >     }

`\italic` arg (markup)

  Use italic `font-shape` for arg.

  >     \markup {
  >       default
  >       \hspace #2
  >       \italic
  >       italic
  >     }

`\large` arg (markup)

  Set font size to +1.

  >     \markup {
  >       default
  >       \hspace #2
  >       \large
  >       large
  >     }

`\larger` arg (markup)

  Increase the font size relative to the current setting.

  >     \markup {
  >       default
  >       \hspace #2
  >       \larger
  >       larger
  >     }

`\magnify` sz (number) arg (markup)

  Set the font magnification for its argument. In the following example, the middle A is 10% larger:

  >     A \magnify #1.1 { A } A

  Note: Magnification only works if a font name is explicitly selected. Use `\fontsize` otherwise.

  >     \markup {
  >       default
  >       \hspace #2
  >       \magnify #1.5 {
  >         50% larger
  >       }
  >     }

`\medium` arg (markup)

  Switch to medium font-series (in contrast to bold).

  >     \markup {
  >       \bold {
  >         some bold text
  >         \hspace #2
  >         \medium {
  >           medium font series
  >         }
  >         \hspace #2
  >         bold again
  >       }
  >     }

`\normal-size-sub` arg (markup)

  Set arg in subscript with a normal font size.

  >     \markup {
  >       default
  >       \normal-size-sub {
  >         subscript in standard size
  >       }
  >     }

  Used properties:

  - `baseline-skip`
`\normal-size-super` arg (markup)

  Set arg in superscript with a normal font size.

  >     \markup {
  >       default
  >       \normal-size-super {
  >         superscript in standard size
  >       }
  >     }

  Used properties:

  - `baseline-skip`
`\normal-text` arg (markup)

  Set all font related properties (except the size) to get the default normal text font, no matter what font was used earlier.

  >     \markup {
  >       \huge \bold \sans \caps {
  >         Some text with font overrides
  >         \hspace #2
  >         \normal-text {
  >           Default text, same font-size
  >         }
  >         \hspace #2
  >         More text as before
  >       }
  >     }

`\normalsize` arg (markup)

  Set font size to default.

  >     \markup {
  >       \teeny {
  >         this is very small
  >         \hspace #2
  >         \normalsize {
  >           normal size
  >         }
  >         \hspace #2
  >         teeny again
  >       }
  >     }

`\number` arg (markup)

  Set font family to `number`, which yields the font used for time signatures and fingerings. This font contains numbers and some punctuation; it has no letters.

  >     \markup {
  >       \number {
  >         0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 . ,
  >       }
  >     }

`\roman` arg (markup)

  Set font family to `roman`.

  >     \markup {
  >       \sans \bold {
  >         sans serif, bold
  >         \hspace #2
  >         \roman {
  >           text in roman font family
  >         }
  >         \hspace #2
  >         return to sans
  >       }
  >     }

`\sans` arg (markup)

  Switch to the sans serif font family.

  >     \markup {
  >       default
  >       \hspace #2
  >       \sans {
  >         sans serif
  >       }
  >     }

`\simple` str (string)

  A simple text string; `\markup { foo }` is equivalent with `\markup { \simple #"foo" }`.

  Note: for creating standard text markup or defining new markup commands, the use of `\simple` is unnecessary.

  >     \markup {
  >       \simple #"simple"
  >       \simple #"text"
  >       \simple #"strings"
  >     }

`\small` arg (markup)

  Set font size to -1.

  >     \markup {
  >       default
  >       \hspace #2
  >       \small
  >       small
  >     }

`\smallCaps` arg (markup)

  Emit arg as small caps.

  Note: `\smallCaps` does not support accented characters.

  >     \markup {
  >       default
  >       \hspace #2
  >       \smallCaps {
  >         Text in small caps
  >       }
  >     }

`\smaller` arg (markup)

  Decrease the font size relative to the current setting.

  >     \markup {
  >       \fontsize #3.5 {
  >         some large text
  >         \hspace #2
  >         \smaller {
  >           a bit smaller
  >         }
  >         \hspace #2
  >         more large text
  >       }
  >     }

`\sub` arg (markup)

  Set arg in subscript.

  >     \markup {
  >       \concat {
  >         H
  >         \sub {
  >           2
  >         }
  >         O
  >       }
  >     }

  Used properties:

  - `baseline-skip`
  - `font-size` (0)
`\super` arg (markup)

  Set arg in superscript.

  >     \markup {
  >       E =
  >       \concat {
  >         mc
  >         \super
  >         2
  >       }
  >     }

  Used properties:

  - `baseline-skip`
  - `font-size` (0)
`\teeny` arg (markup)

  Set font size to -3.

  >     \markup {
  >       default
  >       \hspace #2
  >       \teeny
  >       teeny
  >     }

`\text` arg (markup)

  Use a text font instead of music symbol or music alphabet font.

  >     \markup {
  >       \number {
  >         1, 2,
  >         \text {
  >           three, four,
  >         }
  >         5
  >       }
  >     }

`\tiny` arg (markup)

  Set font size to -2.

  >     \markup {
  >       default
  >       \hspace #2
  >       \tiny
  >       tiny
  >     }

`\typewriter` arg (markup)

  Use `font-family` typewriter for arg.

  >     \markup {
  >       default
  >       \hspace #2
  >       \typewriter
  >       typewriter
  >     }

`\underline` arg (markup)

  Underline arg. Looks at `thickness` to determine line thickness and y-offset.

  >     \markup {
  >       default
  >       \hspace #2
  >       \override #'(thickness . 2)
  >       \underline {
  >         underline
  >       }
  >     }

  Used properties:

  - `thickness` (1)
`\upright` arg (markup)

  Set `font-shape` to `upright`. This is the opposite of `italic`.

  >     \markup {
  >       \italic {
  >         italic text
  >         \hspace #2
  >         \upright {
  >           upright text
  >         }
  >         \hspace #2
  >         italic again
  >       }
  >     }

### B.8.2 Align

`\center-align` arg (markup)

  Align `arg` to its X center.

  >     \markup {
  >       \column {
  >         one
  >         \center-align
  >         two
  >         three
  >       }
  >     }

`\center-column` args (list of markups)

  Put `args` in a centered column.

  >     \markup {
  >       \center-column {
  >         one
  >         two
  >         three
  >       }
  >     }

  Used properties:

  - `baseline-skip`
`\column` args (list of markups)

  Stack the markups in args vertically. The property `baseline-skip` determines the space between markups in args.

  >     \markup {
  >       \column {
  >         one
  >         two
  >         three
  >       }
  >     }

  Used properties:

  - `baseline-skip`
`\combine` arg1 (markup) arg2 (markup)

  Print two markups on top of each other.

  Note: `\combine` cannot take a list of markups enclosed in curly braces as an argument; the follow example will not compile:

  >     \combine { a list }

  >     \markup {
  >       \fontsize #5
  >       \override #'(thickness . 2)
  >       \combine
  >         \draw-line #'(0 . 4)
  >         \arrow-head #Y #DOWN ##f
  >     }

`\concat` args (list of markups)

  Concatenate args in a horizontal line, without spaces in between. Strings and simple markups are concatenated on the input level, allowing ligatures. For example, `\concat { "f" \simple #"i" }` is equivalent to `"fi"`.

  >     \markup {
  >       \concat {
  >         one
  >         two
  >         three
  >       }
  >     }

`\dir-column` args (list of markups)

  Make a column of args, going up or down, depending on the setting of the `direction` layout property.

  >     \markup {
  >       \override #`(direction . ,UP) {
  >         \dir-column {
  >           going up
  >         }
  >       }
  >       \hspace #1
  >       \dir-column {
  >         going down
  >       }
  >       \hspace #1
  >       \override #'(direction . 1) {
  >         \dir-column {
  >           going up
  >         }
  >       }
  >     }

  Used properties:

  - `baseline-skip`
  - `direction`
`\fill-line` args (list of markups)

  Put markups in a horizontal line of width line-width. The markups are spaced or flushed to fill the entire line. If there are no arguments, return an empty stencil.

  >     \markup {
  >       \column {
  >         \fill-line {
  >           Words evenly spaced across the page
  >         }
  >         \null
  >         \fill-line {
  >           \line { Text markups }
  >           \line {
  >             \italic { evenly spaced }
  >           }
  >           \line { across the page }
  >         }
  >       }
  >     }

  Used properties:

  - `line-width` (#f)
  - `word-space` (1)
  - `text-direction` (1)
`\general-align` axis (integer) dir (number) arg (markup)

  Align arg in axis direction to the dir side.

  >     \markup {
  >       \column {
  >         one
  >         \general-align #X #LEFT
  >         two
  >         three
  >         \null
  >         one
  >         \general-align #X #CENTER
  >         two
  >         three
  >         \null
  >         \line {
  >           one
  >           \general-align #Y #UP
  >           two
  >           three
  >         }
  >         \null
  >         \line {
  >           one
  >           \general-align #Y #3.2
  >           two
  >           three
  >         }
  >       }
  >     }

`\halign` dir (number) arg (markup)

  Set horizontal alignment. If dir is `-1`, then it is left-aligned, while `+1` is right. Values in between interpolate alignment accordingly.

  >     \markup {
  >       \column {
  >         one
  >         \halign #LEFT
  >         two
  >         three
  >         \null
  >         one
  >         \halign #CENTER
  >         two
  >         three
  >         \null
  >         one
  >         \halign #RIGHT
  >         two
  >         three
  >         \null
  >         one
  >         \halign #-5
  >         two
  >         three
  >       }
  >     }

`\hcenter-in` length (number) arg (markup)

  Center arg horizontally within a box of extending length/2 to the left and right.

  >     \new StaffGroup <<
  >       \new Staff {
  >         \set Staff.instrumentName = \markup {
  >           \hcenter-in #12
  >           Oboe
  >         }
  >         c''1
  >       }
  >       \new Staff {
  >         \set Staff.instrumentName = \markup {
  >           \hcenter-in #12
  >           Bassoon
  >         }
  >         \clef tenor
  >         c'1
  >       }
  >     >>

`\hspace` amount (number)

  Create an invisible object taking up horizontal space amount.

  >     \markup {
  >       one
  >       \hspace #2
  >       two
  >       \hspace #8
  >       three
  >     }

`\justify-field` symbol (symbol)

  Justify the data which has been assigned to symbol.

  >     \header {
  >       title = "My title"
  >       description = "Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing
  >         elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna
  >         aliqua.  Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco
  >         laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat."
  >     }

  >     \paper {
  >       bookTitleMarkup = \markup {
  >         \column {
  >           \fill-line { \fromproperty #'header:title }
  >           \null
  >           \justify-field #'header:description
  >         }
  >       }
  >     }

  >     \markup {
  >       \null
  >     }

`\justify` args (list of markups)

  Like `\wordwrap`, but with lines stretched to justify the margins. Use `\override #'(line-width . X)` to set the line width; X is the number of staff spaces.

  >     \markup {
  >       \justify {
  >         Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed
  >         do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua.
  >         Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco
  >         laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat.
  >       }
  >     }

  Used properties:

  - `text-direction` (1)
  - `word-space`
  - `line-width` (#f)
  - `baseline-skip`
`\justify-string` arg (string)

  Justify a string. Paragraphs may be separated with double newlines

  >     \markup {
  >       \override #'(line-width . 40)
  >       \justify-string #"Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur
  >           adipisicing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore
  >           et dolore magna aliqua.

  >           Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco
  >           laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat.

  >           Excepteur sint occaecat cupidatat non proident, sunt in culpa
  >           qui officia deserunt mollit anim id est laborum"
  >     }

  Used properties:

  - `text-direction` (1)
  - `word-space`
  - `line-width`
  - `baseline-skip`
`\left-align` arg (markup)

  Align arg on its left edge.

  >     \markup {
  >       \column {
  >         one
  >         \left-align
  >         two
  >         three
  >       }
  >     }

`\left-column` args (list of markups)

  Put `args` in a left-aligned column.

  >     \markup {
  >       \left-column {
  >         one
  >         two
  >         three
  >       }
  >     }

  Used properties:

  - `baseline-skip`
`\line` args (list of markups)

  Put args in a horizontal line. The property `word-space` determines the space between markups in args.

  >     \markup {
  >       \line {
  >         one two three
  >       }
  >     }

  Used properties:

  - `text-direction` (1)
  - `word-space`
`\lower` amount (number) arg (markup)

  Lower arg by the distance amount. A negative amount indicates raising; see also `\raise`.

  >     \markup {
  >       one
  >       \lower #3
  >       two
  >       three
  >     }

`\pad-around` amount (number) arg (markup)

  Add padding amount all around arg.

  >     \markup {
  >       \box {
  >         default
  >       }
  >       \hspace #2
  >       \box {
  >         \pad-around #0.5 {
  >           padded
  >         }
  >       }
  >     }

`\pad-markup` amount (number) arg (markup)

  Add space around a markup object.

  >     \markup {
  >       \box {
  >         default
  >       }
  >       \hspace #2
  >       \box {
  >         \pad-markup #1 {
  >           padded
  >         }
  >       }
  >     }

`\pad-to-box` x-ext (pair of numbers) y-ext (pair of numbers) arg (markup)

  Make arg take at least x-ext, y-ext space.

  >     \markup {
  >       \box {
  >         default
  >       }
  >       \hspace #4
  >       \box {
  >         \pad-to-box #'(0 . 10) #'(0 . 3) {
  >           padded
  >         }
  >       }
  >     }

`\pad-x` amount (number) arg (markup)

  Add padding amount around arg in the X direction.

  >     \markup {
  >       \box {
  >         default
  >       }
  >       \hspace #4
  >       \box {
  >         \pad-x #2 {
  >           padded
  >         }
  >       }
  >     }

`\put-adjacent` axis (integer) dir (direction) arg1 (markup) arg2 (markup)

  Put arg2 next to arg1, without moving arg1.

`\raise` amount (number) arg (markup)

  Raise arg by the distance amount. A negative amount indicates lowering, see also `\lower`.

  The argument to `\raise` is the vertical displacement amount, measured in (global) staff spaces. `\raise` and `\super` raise objects in relation to their surrounding markups.

  If the text object itself is positioned above or below the staff, then `\raise` cannot be used to move it, since the mechanism that positions it next to the staff cancels any shift made with `\raise`. For vertical positioning, use the `padding` and/or `extra-offset` properties.

  >     \markup {
  >       C
  >       \small
  >       \bold
  >       \raise #1.0
  >       9/7+
  >     }

`\right-align` arg (markup)

  Align arg on its right edge.

  >     \markup {
  >       \column {
  >         one
  >         \right-align
  >         two
  >         three
  >       }
  >     }

`\right-column` args (list of markups)

  Put `args` in a right-aligned column.

  >     \markup {
  >       \right-column {
  >         one
  >         two
  >         three
  >       }
  >     }

  Used properties:

  - `baseline-skip`
`\rotate` ang (number) arg (markup)

  Rotate object with ang degrees around its center.

  >     \markup {
  >       default
  >       \hspace #2
  >       \rotate #45
  >       \line {
  >         rotated 45°
  >       }
  >     }

`\translate` offset (pair of numbers) arg (markup)

  Translate arg relative to its surroundings. offset is a pair of numbers representing the displacement in the X and Y axis.

  >     \markup {
  >       *
  >       \translate #'(2 . 3)
  >       \line { translated two spaces right, three up }
  >     }

`\translate-scaled` offset (pair of numbers) arg (markup)

  Translate arg by offset, scaling the offset by the `font-size`.

  >     \markup {
  >       \fontsize #5 {
  >         * \translate #'(2 . 3) translate
  >         \hspace #2
  >         * \translate-scaled #'(2 . 3) translate-scaled
  >       }
  >     }

  Used properties:

  - `font-size` (0)
`\vcenter` arg (markup)

  Align `arg` to its Y center.

  >     \markup {
  >       one
  >       \vcenter
  >       two
  >       three
  >     }

`\wordwrap-field` symbol (symbol)

  Wordwrap the data which has been assigned to symbol.

  >     \header {
  >       title = "My title"
  >       description = "Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing
  >         elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna
  >         aliqua.  Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco
  >         laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat."
  >     }

  >     \paper {
  >       bookTitleMarkup = \markup {
  >         \column {
  >           \fill-line { \fromproperty #'header:title }
  >           \null
  >           \wordwrap-field #'header:descr
  >         }
  >       }
  >     }

  >     \markup {
  >       \null
  >     }

`\wordwrap` args (list of markups)

  Simple wordwrap. Use `\override #'(line-width . X)` to set the line width, where X is the number of staff spaces.

  >     \markup {
  >       \wordwrap {
  >         Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur adipisicing elit, sed
  >         do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore et dolore magna aliqua.
  >         Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco
  >         laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat.
  >       }
  >     }

  Used properties:

  - `text-direction` (1)
  - `word-space`
  - `line-width` (#f)
  - `baseline-skip`
`\wordwrap-string` arg (string)

  Wordwrap a string. Paragraphs may be separated with double newlines.

  >     \markup {
  >       \override #'(line-width . 40)
  >       \wordwrap-string #"Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, consectetur
  >           adipisicing elit, sed do eiusmod tempor incididunt ut labore
  >           et dolore magna aliqua.

  >           Ut enim ad minim veniam, quis nostrud exercitation ullamco
  >           laboris nisi ut aliquip ex ea commodo consequat.

  >           Excepteur sint occaecat cupidatat non proident, sunt in culpa
  >           qui officia deserunt mollit anim id est laborum"
  >     }

  Used properties:

  - `text-direction` (1)
  - `word-space`
  - `line-width`
  - `baseline-skip`

### B.8.3 Graphic

`\arrow-head` axis (integer) dir (direction) filled (boolean)

  Produce an arrow head in specified direction and axis. Use the filled head if filled is specified.

  >     \markup {
  >       \fontsize #5 {
  >         \general-align #Y #DOWN {
  >           \arrow-head #Y #UP ##t
  >           \arrow-head #Y #DOWN ##f
  >           \hspace #2
  >           \arrow-head #X #RIGHT ##f
  >           \arrow-head #X #LEFT ##f
  >         }
  >       }
  >     }

`\beam` width (number) slope (number) thickness (number)

  Create a beam with the specified parameters.

  >     \markup {
  >       \beam #5 #1 #2
  >     }

`\bracket` arg (markup)

  Draw vertical brackets around arg.

  >     \markup {
  >       \bracket {
  >         \note #"2." #UP
  >       }
  >     }

`\circle` arg (markup)

  Draw a circle around arg. Use `thickness`, `circle-padding` and `font-size` properties to determine line thickness and padding around the markup.

  >     \markup {
  >       \circle {
  >         Hi
  >       }
  >     }

  Used properties:

  - `circle-padding` (0.2)
  - `font-size` (0)
  - `thickness` (1)
`\draw-circle` radius (number) thickness (number) filled (boolean)

  A circle of radius radius and thickness thickness, optionally filled.

  >     \markup {
  >       \draw-circle #2 #0.5 ##f
  >       \hspace #2
  >       \draw-circle #2 #0 ##t
  >     }

`\draw-line` dest (pair of numbers)

  A simple line.

  >     \markup {
  >       \draw-line #'(4 . 4)
  >       \override #'(thickness . 5)
  >       \draw-line #'(-3 . 0)
  >     }

  Used properties:

  - `thickness` (1)
`\epsfile` axis (number) size (number) file-name (string)

  Inline an EPS image. The image is scaled along axis to size.

  >     \markup {
  >       \general-align #Y #DOWN {
  >         \epsfile #X #20 #"context-example.eps"
  >         \epsfile #Y #20 #"context-example.eps"
  >       }
  >     }

`\filled-box` xext (pair of numbers) yext (pair of numbers) blot (number)

  Draw a box with rounded corners of dimensions xext and yext. For example,

      \filled-box #'(-.3 . 1.8) #'(-.3 . 1.8) #0

  creates a box extending horizontally from -0.3 to 1.8 and vertically from -0.3 up to 1.8, with corners formed from a circle of diameter 0 (i.e., sharp corners).

  >     \markup {
  >       \filled-box #'(0 . 4) #'(0 . 4) #0
  >       \filled-box #'(0 . 2) #'(-4 . 2) #0.4
  >       \filled-box #'(1 . 8) #'(0 . 7) #0.2
  >       \with-color #white
  >       \filled-box #'(-4.5 . -2.5) #'(3.5 . 5.5) #0.7
  >     }

`\hbracket` arg (markup)

  Draw horizontal brackets around arg.

  >     \markup {
  >       \hbracket {
  >         \line {
  >           one two three
  >         }
  >       }
  >     }

`\postscript` str (string)

  This inserts str directly into the output as a PostScript command string.

  >     eyeglassesps = #"
  >       0.15 setlinewidth
  >       -0.9 0 translate
  >       1.1 1.1 scale
  >       1.2 0.7 moveto
  >       0.7 0.7 0.5 0 361 arc
  >       stroke
  >       2.20 0.70 0.50 0 361 arc
  >       stroke
  >       1.45 0.85 0.30 0 180 arc
  >       stroke
  >       0.20 0.70 moveto
  >       0.80 2.00 lineto
  >       0.92 2.26 1.30 2.40 1.15 1.70 curveto
  >       stroke
  >       2.70 0.70 moveto
  >       3.30 2.00 lineto
  >       3.42 2.26 3.80 2.40 3.65 1.70 curveto
  >       stroke"

  >     eyeglasses = \markup {
  >       \with-dimensions #'(0 . 4.4) #'(0 . 2.5)
  >       \postscript #eyeglassesps
  >     }

  >     \relative c'' {
  >       c2^\eyeglasses
  >       a2_\eyeglasses
  >     }

`\rounded-box` arg (markup)

  Draw a box with rounded corners around arg. Looks at `thickness`, `box-padding` and `font-size` properties to determine line thickness and padding around the markup; the `corner-radius` property makes it possible to define another shape for the corners (default is 1).

  >     c4^\markup {
  >       \rounded-box {
  >         Overtura
  >       }
  >     }
  >     c,8. c16 c4 r

  Used properties:

  - `box-padding` (0.5)
  - `font-size` (0)
  - `corner-radius` (1)
  - `thickness` (1)
`\triangle` filled (boolean)

  A triangle, either filled or empty.

  >     \markup {
  >       \triangle ##t
  >       \hspace #2
  >       \triangle ##f
  >     }

  Used properties:

  - `baseline-skip` (2)
  - `font-size` (0)
  - `thickness` (0.1)
`\with-url` url (string) arg (markup)

  Add a link to URL url around arg. This only works in the PDF backend.

  >     \markup {
  >       \with-url #"http://lilypond.org/web/" {
  >         LilyPond ... \italic {
  >           music notation for everyone
  >         }
  >       }
  >     }

### B.8.4 Music

`\doubleflat`

  Draw a double flat symbol.

  >     \markup {
  >       \doubleflat
  >     }

`\doublesharp`

  Draw a double sharp symbol.

  >     \markup {
  >       \doublesharp
  >     }

`\flat`

  Draw a flat symbol.

  >     \markup {
  >       \flat
  >     }

`\musicglyph` glyph-name (string)

  glyph-name is converted to a musical symbol; for example, `\musicglyph #"accidentals.natural"` selects the natural sign from the music font. See The Feta font for a complete listing of the possible glyphs.

  >     \markup {
  >       \musicglyph #"f"
  >       \musicglyph #"rests.2"
  >       \musicglyph #"clefs.G_change"
  >     }

`\natural`

  Draw a natural symbol.

  >     \markup {
  >       \natural
  >     }

`\note-by-number` log (number) dot-count (number) dir (number)

  Construct a note symbol, with stem. By using fractional values for dir, longer or shorter stems can be obtained.

  >     \markup {
  >       \note-by-number #3 #0 #DOWN
  >       \hspace #2
  >       \note-by-number #1 #2 #0.8
  >     }

  Used properties:

  - `style` (’())
  - `font-size` (0)
`\note` duration (string) dir (number)

  This produces a note with a stem pointing in dir direction, with the duration for the note head type and augmentation dots. For example, `\note #"4." #-0.75` creates a dotted quarter note, with a shortened down stem.

  >     \markup {
  >       \override #'(style . cross) {
  >         \note #"4.." #UP
  >       }
  >       \hspace #2
  >       \note #"breve" #0
  >     }

  Used properties:

  - `style` (’())
  - `font-size` (0)
`\score` score (unknown)

  Inline an image of music.

  >     \markup {
  >       \score {
  >         \new PianoStaff <<
  >           \new Staff \relative c' {
  >             \key f \major
  >             \time 3/4
  >             \mark \markup { Allegro }
  >             f2\p( a4)
  >             c2( a4)
  >             bes2( g'4)
  >             f8( e) e4 r
  >           }
  >           \new Staff \relative c {
  >             \clef bass
  >             \key f \major
  >             \time 3/4
  >             f8( a c a c a
  >             f c' es c es c)
  >             f,( bes d bes d bes)
  >             f( g bes g bes g)
  >           }
  >         >>
  >         \layout {
  >           indent = 0.0\cm
  >           \context {
  >             \Score
  >             \override RehearsalMark #'break-align-symbols =
  >               #'(time-signature key-signature)
  >             \override RehearsalMark #'self-alignment-X = #LEFT
  >           }
  >           \context {
  >             \Staff
  >             \override TimeSignature #'break-align-anchor-alignment = #LEFT
  >           }
  >         }
  >       }
  >     }

`\semiflat`

  Draw a semiflat symbol.

  >     \markup {
  >       \semiflat
  >     }

`\semisharp`

  Draw a semisharp symbol.

  >     \markup {
  >       \semisharp
  >     }

`\sesquiflat`

  Draw a 3/2 flat symbol.

  >     \markup {
  >       \sesquiflat
  >     }

`\sesquisharp`

  Draw a 3/2 sharp symbol.

  >     \markup {
  >       \sesquisharp
  >     }

`\sharp`

  Draw a sharp symbol.

  >     \markup {
  >       \sharp
  >     }

`\tied-lyric` str (string)

  Like simple-markup, but use tie characters for ‘~’ tilde symbols.

  >     \markup {
  >       \tied-lyric #"Lasciate~i monti"
  >     }

### B.8.5 Instrument Specific Markup

`\fret-diagram` definition-string (string)

  Make a (guitar) fret diagram. For example, say

  >     \markup \fret-diagram #"s:0.75;6-x;5-x;4-o;3-2;2-3;1-2;"

  for fret spacing 3/4 of staff space, D chord diagram

  Syntax rules for definition-string:

  Used properties:

  - `thickness` (0.5)
  - `fret-diagram-details`
  - `size` (1.0)
  - `align-dir` (-0.4)
`\fret-diagram-terse` definition-string (string)

  Make a fret diagram markup using terse string-based syntax.

  Here is an example

  >     \markup \fret-diagram-terse #"x;x;o;2;3;2;"

  for a D chord diagram.

  Syntax rules for definition-string:

  - Strings are terminated by semicolons; the number of semicolons is the number of strings in the diagram.
  - Mute strings are indicated by ‘`x`’.
  - Open strings are indicated by ‘`o`’.
  - A number indicates a fret indication at that fret.
  - If there are multiple fret indicators desired on a string, they should be separated by spaces.
  - Fingerings are given by following the fret number with a `-`, followed by the finger indicator, e.g. ‘`3-2`’ for playing the third fret with the second finger.
  - Where a barre indicator is desired, follow the fret (or fingering) symbol with `-(` to start a barre and `-)` to end the barre.

  Used properties:

  - `thickness` (0.5)
  - `fret-diagram-details`
  - `size` (1.0)
  - `align-dir` (-0.4)
`\fret-diagram-verbose` marking-list (pair)

  Make a fret diagram containing the symbols indicated in marking-list.

  For example,

  >     \markup \fret-diagram-verbose
  >       #'((mute 6) (mute 5) (open 4)
  >          (place-fret 3 2) (place-fret 2 3) (place-fret 1 2))

  produces a standard D chord diagram without fingering indications.

  Possible elements in marking-list:

  `(mute string-number)`

    Place a small ‘x’ at the top of string string-number.

  `(open string-number)`

    Place a small ‘o’ at the top of string string-number.

  `(barre start-string end-string fret-number)`

    Place a barre indicator (much like a tie) from string start-string to string end-string at fret fret-number.

  `(capo fret-number)`

    Place a capo indicator (a large solid bar) across the entire fretboard at fret location fret-number. Also, set fret fret-number to be the lowest fret on the fret diagram.

  `(place-fret string-number fret-number finger-value)`

    Place a fret playing indication on string string-number at fret fret-number with an optional fingering label finger-value. By default, the fret playing indicator is a solid dot. This can be changed by setting the value of the variable dot-color. If the finger part of the `place-fret` element is present, finger-value will be displayed according to the setting of the variable finger-code. There is no limit to the number of fret indications per string.

  Used properties:

  - `thickness` (0.5)
  - `fret-diagram-details`
  - `size` (1.0)
  - `align-dir` (-0.4)
`\harp-pedal` definition-string (string)

  Make a harp pedal diagram.

  Possible elements in definition-string:

  `^`

    pedal is up

  `-`

    pedal is neutral

  `v`

    pedal is down

  `|`

    vertical divider line

  `o`

    the following pedal should be circled (indicating a change)

  The function also checks if the string has the typical form of three pedals, then the divider and then the remaining four pedals. If not it prints out a warning. However, in any case, it will also print each symbol in the order as given. This means you can place the divider (even multiple dividers) anywhere you want, but you’ll have to live with the warnings.

  The appearance of the diagram can be tweaked inter alia using the size property of the TextScript grob (`\override Voice.TextScript #'size = #0.3`) for the overall, the thickness property (`\override Voice.TextScript #'thickness = #3`) for the line thickness of the horizontal line and the divider. The remaining configuration (box sizes, offsets and spaces) is done by the harp-pedal-details list of properties (`\override Voice.TextScript #'harp-pedal-details #'box-width = #1`). It contains the following settings: `box-offset` (vertical shift of the box center for up/down pedals), `box-width`, `box-height`, `space-before-divider` (the spacing between two boxes before the divider) and `space-after-divider` (box spacing after the divider).

  >     \markup \harp-pedal #"^-v|--ov^"

  Used properties:

  - `thickness` (0.5)
  - `harp-pedal-details`
  - `size` (1.0)

### B.8.6 Other

`\backslashed-digit` num (integer)

  A feta number, with backslash. This is for use in the context of figured bass notation.

  >     \markup {
  >       \backslashed-digit #5
  >       \hspace #2
  >       \override #'(thickness . 3)
  >       \backslashed-digit #7
  >     }

  Used properties:

  - `thickness` (1.6)
  - `font-size` (0)
`\char` num (integer)

  Produce a single character. Characters encoded in hexadecimal format require the prefix `#x`.

  >     \markup {
  >       \char #65 \char ##x00a9
  >     }

`\fraction` arg1 (markup) arg2 (markup)

  Make a fraction of two markups.

  >     \markup {
  >       π ≈
  >       \fraction 355 113
  >     }

  Used properties:

  - `font-size` (0)
`\fromproperty` symbol (symbol)

  Read the symbol from property settings, and produce a stencil from the markup contained within. If symbol is not defined, it returns an empty markup.

  >     \header {
  >       myTitle = "myTitle"
  >       title = \markup {
  >         from
  >         \italic
  >         \fromproperty #'header:myTitle
  >       }
  >     }
  >     \markup {
  >       \null
  >     }

`\lookup` glyph-name (string)

  Lookup a glyph by name.

  >     \markup {
  >       \override #'(font-encoding . fetaBraces) {
  >         \lookup #"brace200"
  >         \hspace #2
  >         \rotate #180
  >         \lookup #"brace180"
  >       }
  >     }

`\markalphabet` num (integer)

  Make a markup letter for num. The letters start with A to Z and continue with double letters.

  >     \markup {
  >       \markalphabet #8
  >       \hspace #2
  >       \markalphabet #26
  >     }

`\markletter` num (integer)

  Make a markup letter for num. The letters start with A to Z (skipping letter I), and continue with double letters.

  >     \markup {
  >       \markletter #8
  >       \hspace #2
  >       \markletter #26
  >     }

`\null`

  An empty markup with extents of a single point.

  >     \markup {
  >       \null
  >     }

`\on-the-fly` procedure (symbol) arg (markup)

  Apply the procedure markup command to arg. procedure should take a single argument.

`\override` new-prop (pair) arg (markup)

  Add the argument new-prop to the property list. Properties may be any property supported by font-interface, text-interface and instrument-specific-markup-interface.

  >     \markup {
  >       \line {
  >         \column {
  >           default
  >           baseline-skip
  >         }
  >         \hspace #2
  >         \override #'(baseline-skip . 4) {
  >           \column {
  >             increased
  >             baseline-skip
  >           }
  >         }
  >       }
  >     }

`\page-ref` label (symbol) gauge (markup) default (markup)

  Reference to a page number. label is the label set on the referenced page (using the `\label` command), gauge a markup used to estimate the maximum width of the page number, and default the value to display when label is not found.

`\slashed-digit` num (integer)

  A feta number, with slash. This is for use in the context of figured bass notation.

  >     \markup {
  >       \slashed-digit #5
  >       \hspace #2
  >       \override #'(thickness . 3)
  >       \slashed-digit #7
  >     }

  Used properties:

  - `thickness` (1.6)
  - `font-size` (0)
`\stencil` stil (unknown)

  Use a stencil as markup.

  >     \markup {
  >       \stencil #(make-circle-stencil 2 0 #t)
  >     }

`\strut`

  Create a box of the same height as the space in the current font.

`\transparent` arg (markup)

  Make arg transparent.

  >     \markup {
  >       \transparent {
  >         invisible text
  >       }
  >     }

`\verbatim-file` name (string)

  Read the contents of file name, and include it verbatim.

  >     \markup {
  >       \verbatim-file #"simple.ly"
  >     }

`\whiteout` arg (markup)

  Provide a white background for arg.

  >     \markup {
  >       \combine
  >         \filled-box #'(-1 . 10) #'(-3 . 4) #1
  >         \whiteout whiteout
  >     }

`\with-color` color (list) arg (markup)

  Draw arg in color specified by color.

  >     \markup {
  >       \with-color #red
  >       red
  >       \hspace #2
  >       \with-color #green
  >       green
  >       \hspace #2
  >       \with-color #blue
  >       blue
  >     }

`\with-dimensions` x (pair of numbers) y (pair of numbers) arg (markup)

  Set the dimensions of arg to x and y.

## B.9 Text markup list commands

The following commands can all be used with `\markuplines`.

`\column-lines` args (list of markups)

  Like `\column`, but return a list of lines instead of a single markup. `baseline-skip` determines the space between each markup in args.

  Used properties:

  - `baseline-skip`
`\justified-lines` args (list of markups)

  Like `\justify`, but return a list of lines instead of a single markup. Use `\override-lines #'(line-width . X)` to set the line width; X is the number of staff spaces.

  Used properties:

  - `text-direction` (1)
  - `word-space`
  - `line-width` (#f)
  - `baseline-skip`
`\override-lines` new-prop (pair) args (list of markups)

  Like `\override`, for markup lists.

`\wordwrap-internal` justify (boolean) args (list of markups)

  Internal markup list command used to define `\justify` and `\wordwrap`.

  Used properties:

  - `text-direction` (1)
  - `word-space`
  - `line-width` (#f)
`\wordwrap-lines` args (list of markups)

  Like `\wordwrap`, but return a list of lines instead of a single markup. Use `\override-lines #'(line-width . X)` to set the line width, where X is the number of staff spaces.

  Used properties:

  - `text-direction` (1)
  - `word-space`
  - `line-width` (#f)
  - `baseline-skip`
`\wordwrap-string-internal` justify (boolean) arg (string)

  Internal markup list command used to define `\justify-string` and `\wordwrap-string`.

  Used properties:

  - `text-direction` (1)
  - `word-space`
  - `line-width`

## B.10 List of articulations

Here is a chart showing all scripts available,

## B.11 Percussion notes

## B.12 All context properties

`aDueText` (markup)

  Text to print at a unisono passage.

`alignAboveContext` (string)

  Where to insert newly created context in vertical alignment.

`alignBassFigureAccidentals` (boolean)

  If true, then the accidentals are aligned in bass figure context.

`alignBelowContext` (string)

  Where to insert newly created context in vertical alignment.

`associatedVoice` (string)

  Name of the `Voice` that has the melody for this `Lyrics` line.

`autoAccidentals` (list)

  List of different ways to typeset an accidental.

  For determining when to print an accidental, several different rules are tried. The rule that gives the highest number of accidentals is used.

  Each entry in the list is either a symbol or a procedure.

  symbol

    The symbol is the name of the context in which the following rules are to be applied. For example, if context is Score then all staves share accidentals, and if context is Staff then all voices in the same staff share accidentals, but staves do not.

  procedure

    The procedure represents an accidental rule to be applied to the previously specified context.

    The procedure takes the following arguments:

    `context`

      The current context to which the rule should be applied.

    `pitch`

      The pitch of the note to be evaluated.

    `barnum`

      The current bar number.

    `measurepos`

      The current measure position.

    The procedure returns a pair of booleans. The first states whether an extra natural should be added. The second states whether an accidental should be printed. `(#t . #f)` does not make sense.

`autoBeamCheck` (procedure)

  A procedure taking three arguments, context, dir [start/stop (-1 or 1)], and test [shortest note in the beam]. A non-`#f` return value starts or stops the auto beam.

`autoBeamSettings` (list)

  Specifies when automatically generated beams should begin and end. See behavior Setting automatic beam behavior for more information.

`autoBeaming` (boolean)

  If set to true then beams are generated automatically.

`autoCautionaries` (list)

  List similar to `autoAccidentals`, but it controls cautionary accidentals rather than normal ones. Both lists are tried, and the one giving the most accidentals wins. In case of draw, a normal accidental is typeset.

`automaticBars` (boolean)

  If set to false then bar lines will not be printed automatically; they must be explicitly created with a `\bar` command. Unlike the `\cadenzaOn` keyword, measures are still counted. Bar line generation will resume according to that count if this property is unset.

`barAlways` (boolean)

  If set to true a bar line is drawn after each note.

`barCheckSynchronize` (boolean)

  If true then reset `measurePosition` when finding a bar check.

`barNumberVisibility` (procedure)

  A Procedure that takes an integer and returns whether the corresponding bar number should be printed.

`bassFigureFormatFunction` (procedure)

  A procedure that is called to produce the formatting for a `BassFigure` grob. It takes a list of `BassFigureEvent`s, a context, and the grob to format.

`bassStaffProperties` (list)

  An alist of property settings to apply for the down staff of `PianoStaff`. Used by `\autochange`.

`beatGrouping` (list)

  A list of beatgroups, e.g., in 5/8 time `'(2 3)`.

`beatLength` (moment)

  The length of one beat in this time signature.

`chordChanges` (boolean)

  Only show changes in chords scheme?

`chordNameExceptions` (list)

  An alist of chord exceptions. Contains `(chord . markup)` entries.

`chordNameExceptionsFull` (list)

  An alist of full chord exceptions. Contains `(chord . markup)` entries.

`chordNameExceptionsPartial` (list)

  An alist of partial chord exceptions. Contains `(chord . (prefix-markup suffix-markup))` entries.

`chordNameFunction` (procedure)

  The function that converts lists of pitches to chord names.

`chordNameSeparator` (markup)

  The markup object used to separate parts of a chord name.

`chordNoteNamer` (procedure)

  A function that converts from a pitch object to a text markup. Used for single pitches.

`chordPrefixSpacer` (number)

  The space added between the root symbol and the prefix of a chord name.

`chordRootNamer` (procedure)

  A function that converts from a pitch object to a text markup. Used for chords.

`clefGlyph` (string)

  Name of the symbol within the music font.

`clefOctavation` (integer)

  Add this much extra octavation. Values of 7 and -7 are common.

`clefPosition` (number)

  Where should the center of the clef symbol go, measured in half staff spaces from the center of the staff.

`completionBusy` (boolean)

  Whether a completion-note head is playing.

`connectArpeggios` (boolean)

  If set, connect arpeggios across piano staff.

`countPercentRepeats` (boolean)

  If set, produce counters for percent repeats.

`createKeyOnClefChange` (boolean)

  Print a key signature whenever the clef is changed.

`createSpacing` (boolean)

  Create `StaffSpacing` objects? Should be set for staves.

`crescendoSpanner` (symbol)

  The type of spanner to be used for crescendi. Available values are ‘`hairpin`’ and ‘`text`’. If unset, a hairpin crescendo is used.

`crescendoText` (markup)

  The text to print at start of non-hairpin crescendo, i.e., ‘`cresc.`’.

`currentBarNumber` (integer)

  Contains the current barnumber. This property is incremented at every bar line.

`decrescendoSpanner` (symbol)

  The type of spanner to be used for decrescendi. Available values are ‘`hairpin`’ and ‘`text`’. If unset, a hairpin decrescendo is used.

`decrescendoText` (markup)

  The text to print at start of non-hairpin decrescendo, i.e., ‘`dim.`’.

`defaultBarType` (string)

  Set the default type of bar line. See `whichBar` for information on available bar types.

  This variable is read by Timing_translator at Score level.

`doubleRepeatType` (string)

  Set the default bar line for double repeats.

`doubleSlurs` (boolean)

  If set, two slurs are created for every slurred note, one above and one below the chord.

`drumPitchTable` (hash table)

  A table mapping percussion instruments (symbols) to pitches.

`drumStyleTable` (hash table)

  A hash table which maps drums to layout settings. Predefined values: ‘`drums-style`’, ‘`timbales-style`’, ‘`congas-style`’, ‘`bongos-style`’, and ‘`percussion-style`’.

  The layout style is a hash table, containing the drum-pitches (e.g., the symbol ‘`hihat`’) as keys, and a list `(notehead-style script vertical-position)` as values.

`explicitClefVisibility` (vector)

  ‘`break-visibility`’ function for clef changes.

`explicitKeySignatureVisibility` (vector)

  ‘`break-visibility`’ function for explicit key changes. ‘`\override`’ of the `break-visibility` property will set the visibility for normal (i.e., at the start of the line) key signatures.

`extendersOverRests` (boolean)

  Whether to continue extenders as they cross a rest.

`extraNatural` (boolean)

  Whether to typeset an extra natural sign before accidentals changing from a non-natural to another non-natural.

`figuredBassAlterationDirection` (direction)

  Where to put alterations relative to the main figure.

`figuredBassCenterContinuations` (boolean)

  Whether to vertically center pairs of extender lines. This does not work with three or more lines.

`figuredBassFormatter` (procedure)

  A routine generating a markup for a bass figure.

`figuredBassPlusDirection` (direction)

  Where to put plus signs relative to the main figure.

`fingeringOrientations` (list)

  A list of symbols, containing ‘`left`’, ‘`right`’, ‘`up`’ and/or ‘`down`’. This list determines where fingerings are put relative to the chord being fingered.

`firstClef` (boolean)

  If true, create a new clef when starting a staff.

`followVoice` (boolean)

  If set, note heads are tracked across staff switches by a thin line.

`fontSize` (number)

  The relative size of all grobs in a context.

`forbidBreak` (boolean)

  If set to `##t`, prevent a line break at this point.

`forceClef` (boolean)

  Show clef symbol, even if it has not changed. Only active for the first clef after the property is set, not for the full staff.

`gridInterval` (moment)

  Interval for which to generate `GridPoint`s.

`harmonicAccidentals` (boolean)

  If set, harmonic notes in chords get accidentals.

`harmonicDots` (boolean)

  If set, harmonic notes in dotted chords get dots.

`highStringOne` (boolean)

  Whether the first string is the string with highest pitch on the instrument. This used by the automatic string selector for tablature notation.

`ignoreBarChecks` (boolean)

  Ignore bar checks.

`ignoreFiguredBassRest` (boolean)

  Don’t swallow rest events.

`ignoreMelismata` (boolean)

  Ignore melismata for this Lyrics line.

`implicitBassFigures` (list)

  A list of bass figures that are not printed as numbers, but only as extender lines.

`implicitTimeSignatureVisibility` (vector)

  break visibility for the default time signature.

`instrumentCueName` (markup)

  The name to print if another instrument is to be taken.

`instrumentEqualizer` (procedure)

  A function taking a string (instrument name), and returning a `(min . max)` pair of numbers for the loudness range of the instrument.

`instrumentName` (markup)

  The name to print left of a staff. The `instrument` property labels the staff in the first system, and the `instr` property labels following lines.

`instrumentTransposition` (pitch)

  Define the transposition of the instrument. Its value is the pitch that sounds like middle C. This is used to transpose the MIDI output, and `\quote`s.

`internalBarNumber` (integer)

  Contains the current barnumber. This property is used for internal timekeeping, among others by the `Accidental_engraver`.

`keepAliveInterfaces` (list)

  A list of symbols, signifying grob interfaces that are worth keeping a staff with `remove-empty` set around for.

`keyAlterationOrder` (list)

  An alist that defines in what order alterations should be printed. The format is `(step . alter)`, where step is a number from 0 to 6 and alter from -2 (sharp) to 2 (flat).

`keySignature` (list)

  The current key signature. This is an alist containing `(step . alter)` or `((octave . step) . alter)`, where step is a number in the range 0 to 6 and alter a fraction, denoting alteration. For alterations, use symbols, e.g. `keySignature = #`((6 . ,FLAT))`.

`lyricMelismaAlignment` (direction)

  Alignment to use for a melisma syllable.

`majorSevenSymbol` (markup)

  How should the major 7th be formatted in a chord name?

`markFormatter` (procedure)

  A procedure taking as arguments the context and the rehearsal mark. It should return the formatted mark as a markup object.

`maximumFretStretch` (number)

  Don’t allocate frets further than this from specified frets.

`measureLength` (moment)

  Length of one measure in the current time signature.

`measurePosition` (moment)

  How much of the current measure have we had. This can be set manually to create incomplete measures.

`melismaBusyProperties` (list)

  A list of properties (symbols) to determine whether a melisma is playing. Setting this property will influence how lyrics are aligned to notes. For example, if set to `#'(melismaBusy beamMelismaBusy)`, only manual melismata and manual beams are considered. Possible values include `melismaBusy`, `slurMelismaBusy`, `tieMelismaBusy`, and `beamMelismaBusy`.

`metronomeMarkFormatter` (procedure)

  How to produce a metronome markup. Called with four arguments: text, duration, count and context.

`middleCClefPosition` (number)

  The position of the middle C, as determined only by the clef. This can be calculated by looking at `clefPosition` and `clefGlyph`.

`middleCOffset` (number)

  The offset of middle C from the position given by `middleCClefPosition` This is used for ottava brackets.

`middleCPosition` (number)

  The place of the middle C, measured in half staff-spaces. Usually determined by looking at `middleCClefPosition` and `middleCOffset`.

`midiInstrument` (string)

  Name of the MIDI instrument to use.

`midiMaximumVolume` (number)

  Analogous to `midiMinimumVolume`.

`midiMinimumVolume` (number)

  Set the minimum loudness for MIDI. Ranges from 0 to 1.

`minimumFret` (number)

  The tablature auto string-selecting mechanism selects the highest string with a fret at least `minimumFret`.

`minimumPageTurnLength` (moment)

  Minimum length of a rest for a page turn to be allowed.

`minimumRepeatLengthForPageTurn` (moment)

  Minimum length of a repeated section for a page turn to be allowed within that section.

`noteToFretFunction` (procedure)

  How to produce a fret diagram. Parameters: A list of note events and a list of tabstring events.

`ottavation` (markup)

  If set, the text for an ottava spanner. Changing this creates a new text spanner.

`output` (unknown)

  The output produced by a score-level translator during music interpretation.

`pedalSostenutoStrings` (list)

  See `pedalSustainStrings`.

`pedalSostenutoStyle` (symbol)

  See `pedalSustainStyle`.

`pedalSustainStrings` (list)

  A list of strings to print for sustain-pedal. Format is `(up updown down)`, where each of the three is the string to print when this is done with the pedal.

`pedalSustainStyle` (symbol)

  A symbol that indicates how to print sustain pedals: `text`, `bracket` or `mixed` (both).

`pedalUnaCordaStrings` (list)

  See `pedalSustainStrings`.

`pedalUnaCordaStyle` (symbol)

  See `pedalSustainStyle`.

`predefinedDiagramTable` (hash table)

  The hash table of predefined fret diagrams to use in FretBoards.

`printKeyCancellation` (boolean)

  Print restoration alterations before a key signature change.

`printOctaveNames` (boolean)

  Print octave marks for the `NoteNames` context.

`printPartCombineTexts` (boolean)

  Set ‘Solo’ and ‘A due’ texts in the part combiner?

`proportionalNotationDuration` (moment)

  Global override for shortest-playing duration. This is used for switching on proportional notation.

`recordEventSequence` (procedure)

  When `Recording_group_engraver` is in this context, then upon termination of the context, this function is called with current context and a list of music objects. The list of contains entries with start times, music objects and whether they are processed in this context.

`rehearsalMark` (integer)

  The last rehearsal mark printed.

`repeatCommands` (list)

  This property is a list of commands of the form `(list 'volta x)`, where x is a string or `#f`. `'end-repeat` is also accepted as a command.

`repeatCountVisibility` (procedure)

  A procedure taking as arguments an integer and context, returning whether the corresponding percent repeat number should be printed when `countPercentRepeats` is set.

`restNumberThreshold` (number)

  If a multimeasure rest has more measures than this, a number is printed.

`shapeNoteStyles` (vector)

  Vector of symbols, listing style for each note head relative to the tonic (qv.) of the scale.

`shortInstrumentName` (markup)

  See `instrument`.

`shortVocalName` (markup)

  Name of a vocal line, short version.

`skipBars` (boolean)

  If set to true, then skip the empty bars that are produced by multimeasure notes and rests. These bars will not appear on the printed output. If not set (the default), multimeasure notes and rests expand into their full length, printing the appropriate number of empty bars so that synchronization with other voices is preserved.

  >     {
  >       r1 r1*3 R1*3
  >       \set Score.skipBars= ##t
  >       r1*3 R1*3
  >     }

`skipTypesetting` (boolean)

  If true, no typesetting is done, speeding up the interpretation phase. Useful for debugging large scores.

`soloIIText` (markup)

  The text for the start of a solo for voice ‘two’ when part-combining.

`soloText` (markup)

  The text for the start of a solo when part-combining.

`squashedPosition` (integer)

  Vertical position of squashing for Pitch_squash_engraver.

`staffLineLayoutFunction` (procedure)

  Layout of staff lines, `traditional`, or `semitone`.

`stanza` (markup)

  Stanza ‘number’ to print before the start of a verse. Use in `Lyrics` context.

`stemLeftBeamCount` (integer)

  Specify the number of beams to draw on the left side of the next note. Overrides automatic beaming. The value is only used once, and then it is erased.

`stemRightBeamCount` (integer)

  See `stemLeftBeamCount`.

`stringNumberOrientations` (list)

  See `fingeringOrientations`.

`stringOneTopmost` (boolean)

  Whether the first string is printed on the top line of the tablature.

`stringTunings` (list)

  The tablature strings tuning. It is a list of the pitch (in semitones) of each string (starting with the lower one).

`strokeFingerOrientations` (list)

  See `fingeringOrientations`.

`subdivideBeams` (boolean)

  If set, multiple beams will be subdivided at beat positions by only drawing one beam over the beat.

`suggestAccidentals` (boolean)

  If set, accidentals are typeset as cautionary suggestions over the note.

`systemStartDelimiter` (symbol)

  Which grob to make for the start of the system/staff? Set to `SystemStartBrace`, `SystemStartBracket` or `SystemStartBar`.

`systemStartDelimiterHierarchy` (pair)

  A nested list, indicating the nesting of a start delimiters.

`tablatureFormat` (procedure)

  A function formatting a tablature note head. Called with three arguments: string number, context and event. It returns the text as a string.

`tempoHideNote` (boolean)

  Hide the note=count in tempo marks.

`tempoText` (markup)

  Text for tempo marks.

`tempoUnitCount` (number)

  Count for specifying tempo.

`tempoUnitDuration` (duration)

  Unit for specifying tempo.

`tempoWholesPerMinute` (moment)

  The tempo in whole notes per minute.

`tieWaitForNote` (boolean)

  If true, tied notes do not have to follow each other directly. This can be used for writing out arpeggios.

`timeSignatureFraction` (pair of numbers)

  A pair of numbers, signifying the time signature. For example, `#'(4 . 4)` is a 4/4 time signature.

`timing` (boolean)

  Keep administration of measure length, position, bar number, etc.? Switch off for cadenzas.

`tonic` (pitch)

  The tonic of the current scale.

`trebleStaffProperties` (list)

  An alist of property settings to apply for the up staff of `PianoStaff`. Used by `\autochange`.

`tremoloFlags` (integer)

  The number of tremolo flags to add if no number is specified.

`tupletFullLength` (boolean)

  If set, the tuplet is printed up to the start of the next note.

`tupletFullLengthNote` (boolean)

  If set, end at the next note, otherwise end on the matter (time signatures, etc.) before the note.

`tupletSpannerDuration` (moment)

  Normally, a tuplet bracket is as wide as the `\times` expression that gave rise to it. By setting this property, you can make brackets last shorter.

  >     {
  >       \set tupletSpannerDuration = #(ly:make-moment 1 4)
  >       \times 2/3 { c8 c c c c c }
  >     }

`useBassFigureExtenders` (boolean)

  Whether to use extender lines for repeated bass figures.

`verticallySpacedContexts` (list)

  List of symbols, containing context names whose vertical axis groups should be taken into account for vertical spacing of systems.

`vocalName` (markup)

  Name of a vocal line.

`voltaSpannerDuration` (moment)

  This specifies the maximum duration to use for the brackets printed for `\alternative`. This can be used to shrink the length of brackets in the situation where one alternative is very large.

`whichBar` (string)

  This property is read to determine what type of bar line to create.

  Example:

  >     \set Staff.whichBar = "|:"

  This will create a start-repeat bar in this staff only. Valid values are described in bar-line-interface.

## B.13 Layout properties

`X-extent` (pair of numbers)

  Hard coded extent in X direction.

`X-offset` (number)

  The horizontal amount that this object is moved relative to its X-parent.

`Y-extent` (pair of numbers)

  Hard coded extent in Y direction.

`Y-offset` (number)

  The vertical amount that this object is moved relative to its Y-parent.

`add-stem-support` (boolean)

  If set, the `Stem` object is included in this script’s support.

`after-line-breaking` (boolean)

  Dummy property, used to trigger callback for `after-line-breaking`.

`align-dir` (direction)

  Which side to align? `-1`: left side, `0`: around center of width, `1`: right side.

`allow-loose-spacing` (boolean)

  If set, column can be detached from main spacing.

`allow-span-bar` (boolean)

  If false, no inter-staff bar line will be created below this bar line.

`alteration` (number)

  Alteration numbers for accidental.

`alteration-alist` (list)

  List of `(pitch . accidental)` pairs for key signature.

`annotation` (string)

  Annotate a grob for debug purposes.

`arpeggio-direction` (direction)

  If set, put an arrow on the arpeggio squiggly line.

`arrow-length` (number)

  Arrow length.

`arrow-width` (number)

  Arrow width.

`auto-knee-gap` (dimension, in staff space)

  If a gap is found between note heads where a horizontal beam fits that is larger than this number, make a kneed beam.

`average-spacing-wishes` (boolean)

  If set, the spacing wishes are averaged over staves.

`avoid-note-head` (boolean)

  If set, the stem of a chord does not pass through all note heads, but starts at the last note head.

`avoid-slur` (symbol)

  Method of handling slur collisions. Choices are `around`, `inside`, `outside`. If unset, scripts and slurs ignore each other. `around` only moves the script if there is a collision; `outside` always moves the script.

`axes` (list)

  List of axis numbers. In the case of alignment grobs, this should contain only one number.

`bar-size` (dimension, in staff space)

  The size of a bar line.

`base-shortest-duration` (moment)

  Spacing is based on the shortest notes in a piece. Normally, pieces are spaced as if notes at least as short as this are present.

`baseline-skip` (dimension, in staff space)

  Distance between base lines of multiple lines of text.

`beam-thickness` (dimension, in staff space)

  Beam thickness, measured in `staff-space` units.

`beam-width` (dimension, in staff space)

  Width of the tremolo sign.

`beamed-stem-shorten` (list)

  How much to shorten beamed stems, when their direction is forced. It is a list, since the value is different depending on the number of flags and beams.

`beaming` (pair)

  Pair of number lists. Each number list specifies which beams to make. `0` is the central beam, `1` is the next beam toward the note, etc. This information is used to determine how to connect the beaming patterns from stem to stem inside a beam.

`beamlet-default-length` (pair)

  A pair of numbers. The first number specifies the default length of a beamlet that sticks out of the left hand side of this stem; the second number specifies the default length of the beamlet to the right. The actual length of a beamlet is determined by taking either the default length or the length specified by `beamlet-max-length-proportion`, whichever is smaller.

`beamlet-max-length-proportion` (pair)

  The maximum length of a beamlet, as a proportion of the distance between two adjacent stems.

`before-line-breaking` (boolean)

  Dummy property, used to trigger a callback function.

`between-cols` (pair)

  Where to attach a loose column to.

`bound-details` (list)

  An alist of properties for determining attachments of spanners to edges.

`bound-padding` (number)

  The amount of padding to insert around spanner bounds.

`bracket-flare` (pair of numbers)

  A pair of numbers specifying how much edges of brackets should slant outward. Value `0.0` means straight edges.

`bracket-visibility` (boolean or symbol)

  This controls the visibility of the tuplet bracket. Setting it to false prevents printing of the bracket. Setting the property to `if-no-beam` makes it print only if there is no beam associated with this tuplet bracket.

`break-align-anchor` (number)

  Grobs aligned to this break-align grob will have their X-offsets shifted by this number. In bar lines, for example, this is used to position grobs relative to the (visual) center of the bar line.

`break-align-anchor-alignment` (number)

  Read by `ly:break-aligned-interface::calc-extent-aligned-anchor` for aligning an anchor to a grob’s extent

`break-align-orders` (vector)

  Defines the order in which prefatory matter (clefs, key signatures) appears. The format is a vector of length 3, where each element is one order for end-of-line, middle of line, and start-of-line, respectively. An order is a list of symbols.

  For example, clefs are put after key signatures by setting

  >     \override Score.BreakAlignment #'break-align-orders =
  >       #(make-vector 3 '(span-bar
  >                         breathing-sign
  >                         staff-bar
  >                         key
  >                         clef
  >                         time-signature))

`break-align-symbol` (symbol)

  This key is used for aligning and spacing breakable items.

`break-align-symbols` (list)

  A list of symbols that determine which break-aligned grobs to align this to. If the grob selected by the first symbol in the list is invisible due to break-visibility, we will align to the next grob (and so on).

`break-overshoot` (pair of numbers)

  How much does a broken spanner stick out of its bounds?

`break-visibility` (vector)

  A vector of 3 booleans, `#(end-of-line unbroken begin-of-line)`. `#t` means visible, `#f` means killed.

`breakable` (boolean)

  Allow breaks here.

`c0-position` (integer)

  An integer indicating the position of middle C.

`circled-tip` (boolean)

  Put a circle at start/end of hairpins (al/del niente).

`clip-edges` (boolean)

  Allow outward pointing beamlets at the edges of beams?

`collapse-height` (dimension, in staff space)

  Minimum height of system start delimiter. If equal or smaller, the bracket/brace/line is removed.

`color` (list)

  The color of this grob.

`common-shortest-duration` (moment)

  The most common shortest note length. This is used in spacing. Enlarging this sets the score tighter.

`concaveness` (number)

  A beam is concave if its inner stems are closer to the beam than the two outside stems. This number is a measure of the closeness of the inner stems. It is used for damping the slope of the beam.

`connect-to-neighbor` (pair)

  Pair of booleans, indicating whether this grob looks as a continued break.

`control-points` (list)

  List of offsets (number pairs) that form control points for the tie, slur, or bracket shape. For Béziers, this should list the control points of a third-order Bézier curve.

`damping` (number)

  Amount of beam slope damping.

`dash-fraction` (number)

  Size of the dashes, relative to `dash-period`. Should be between `0.0` (no line) and `1.0` (continuous line).

`dash-period` (number)

  The length of one dash together with whitespace. If negative, no line is drawn at all.

`default-direction` (direction)

  Direction determined by note head positions.

`digit-names` (unknown)

  Names for string finger digits.

`direction` (direction)

  If `side-axis` is `0` (or `#X`), then this property determines whether the object is placed `#LEFT`, `#CENTER` or `#RIGHT` with respect to the other object. Otherwise, it determines whether the object is placed `#UP`, `#CENTER` or `#DOWN`. Numerical values may also be used: `#UP`=`1`, `#DOWN`=`-1`, `#LEFT`=`-1`, `#RIGHT`=`1`, `#CENTER`=`0`.

`dot-count` (integer)

  The number of dots.

`dot-negative-kern` (number)

  The space to remove between a dot and a slash in percent repeat glyphs. Larger values bring the two elements closer together.

`dot-placement-list` (list)

  List consisting of `(description string-number fret-number finger-number)` entries used to define fret diagrams.

`duration-log` (integer)

  The 2-log of the note head duration, i.e., `0` = whole note, `1` = half note, etc.

`eccentricity` (number)

  How asymmetrical to make a slur. Positive means move the center to the right.

`edge-height` (pair)

  A pair of numbers specifying the heights of the vertical edges: `(left-height . right-height)`.

`edge-text` (pair)

  A pair specifying the texts to be set at the edges: `(left-text . right-text)`.

`expand-limit` (integer)

  Maximum number of measures expanded in church rests.

`extra-X-extent` (pair of numbers)

  A grob is enlarged in X dimension by this much.

`extra-Y-extent` (pair of numbers)

  A grob is enlarged in Y dimension by this much.

`extra-dy` (number)

  Slope glissandi this much extra.

`extra-offset` (pair of numbers)

  A pair representing an offset. This offset is added just before outputting the symbol, so the typesetting engine is completely oblivious to it. The values are measured in `staff-space` units of the staff’s `StaffSymbol`.

`extra-spacing-height` (pair of numbers)

  In the horizontal spacing problem, we increase the height of each item by this amount (by adding the ‘car’ to the bottom of the item and adding the ‘cdr’ to the top of the item). In order to make a grob infinitely high (to prevent the horizontal spacing problem from placing any other grobs above or below this grob), set this to `(-inf.0 . +inf.0)`.

`extra-spacing-width` (pair of numbers)

  In the horizontal spacing problem, we pad each item by this amount (by adding the ‘car’ on the left side of the item and adding the ‘cdr’ on the right side of the item). In order to make a grob take up no horizontal space at all, set this to `(+inf.0 . -inf.0)`.

`flag` (unknown)

  A function returning the full flag stencil for the `Stem`, which is passed to the function as the only argument. The default ly:stem::calc-stencil function uses the `flag-style` property to determine the correct glyph for the flag. By providing your own function, you can create arbitrary flags.

`flag-count` (number)

  The number of tremolo beams.

`flag-style` (symbol)

  A symbol determining what style of flag glyph is typeset on a `Stem`. Valid options include `'()` for standard flags, `'mensural` and `'no-flag`, which switches off the flag.

`font-encoding` (symbol)

  The font encoding is the broadest category for selecting a font. Currently, only lilypond’s system fonts (Emmentaler and Aybabtu) are using this property. Available values are `fetaMusic` (Emmentaler), `fetaBraces` (Aybabtu), `fetaNumber` (Emmentaler), and `fetaDynamic` (Emmentaler).

`font-family` (symbol)

  The font family is the broadest category for selecting text fonts. Options include: `sans`, `roman`.

`font-name` (string)

  Specifies a file name (without extension) of the font to load. This setting overrides selection using `font-family`, `font-series` and `font-shape`.

`font-series` (symbol)

  Select the series of a font. Choices include `medium`, `bold`, `bold-narrow`, etc.

`font-shape` (symbol)

  Select the shape of a font. Choices include `upright`, `italic`, `caps`.

`font-size` (number)

  The font size, compared to the ‘normal’ size. `0` is style-sheet’s normal size, `-1` is smaller, `+1` is bigger. Each step of 1 is approximately 12% larger; 6 steps are exactly a factor 2 larger. Fractional values are allowed.

`force-hshift` (number)

  This specifies a manual shift for notes in collisions. The unit is the note head width of the first voice note. This is used by note-collision-interface.

`fraction` (pair of numbers)

  Numerator and denominator of a time signature object.

`french-beaming` (boolean)

  Use French beaming style for this stem. The stem stops at the innermost beams.

`fret-diagram-details` (list)

  An alist of detailed grob properties for fret diagrams. Each alist entry consists of a `(property . value)` pair. The properties which can be included in `fret-diagram-details` include the following:

  - `barre-type` – Type of barre indication used. Choices include `curved`, `straight`, and `none`. Default `curved`.
  - `capo-thickness` – Thickness of capo indicator, in multiples of fret-space. Default value 0.5.
  - `dot-color` – Color of dots. Options include `black` and `white`. Default `black`.
  - `dot-label-font-mag` – Magnification for font used to label fret dots. Default value 1.
  - `dot-position` – Location of dot in fret space. Default 0.6 for dots without labels, 0.95-`dot-radius` for dots with labels.
  - `dot-radius` – Radius of dots, in terms of fret spaces. Default value 0.425 for labeled dots, 0.25 for unlabeled dots.
  - `finger-code` – Code for the type of fingering indication used. Options include `none`, `in-dot`, and `below-string`. Default `none` for markup fret diagrams, `below-string` for `FretBoards` fret diagrams.
  - `fret-count` – The number of frets. Default 4.
  - `fret-label-font-mag` – The magnification of the font used to label the lowest fret number. Default 0.5.
  - `fret-label-vertical-offset` – The offset of the fret label from the center of the fret in direction parallel to strings. Default 0.
  - `label-dir` – Side to which the fret label is attached. `-1`, `#LEFT`, or `#DOWN` for left or down; `1`, `#RIGHT`, or `#UP` for right or up. Default `#RIGHT`.
  - `mute-string` – Character string to be used to indicate muted string. Default `"x"`.
  - `number-type` – Type of numbers to use in fret label. Choices include `roman-lower`, `roman-upper`, and `arabic`. Default `roman-lower`.
  - `open-string` – Character string to be used to indicate open string. Default `"o"`.
  - `orientation` – Orientation of fret-diagram. Options include `normal`, `landscape`, and `opposing-landscape`. Default `normal`.
  - `string-count` – The number of strings. Default 6.
  - `string-label-font-mag` – The magnification of the font used to label fingerings at the string, rather than in the dot. Default value 0.6 for `normal` orientation, 0.5 for `landscape` and `opposing-landscape`.
  - `string-thickness-factor` – Factor for changing thickness of each string in the fret diagram. Thickness of string k is given by `thickness` * (1+`string-thickness-factor`) ^ (k-1). Default 0.
  - `top-fret-thickness` – The thickness of the top fret line, as a multiple of the standard thickness. Default value 3.
  - `xo-font-magnification` – Magnification used for mute and open string indicators. Default value 0.5.
  - `xo-padding` – Padding for open and mute indicators from top fret. Default value 0.25.
`full-length-padding` (number)

  How much padding to use at the right side of a full-length tuplet bracket.

`full-length-to-extent` (boolean)

  Run to the extent of the column for a full-length tuplet bracket.

`full-measure-extra-space` (number)

  Extra space that is allocated at the beginning of a measure with only one note. This property is read from the NonMusicalPaperColumn that begins the measure.

`full-size-change` (boolean)

  Don’t make a change clef smaller.

`gap` (dimension, in staff space)

  Size of a gap in a variable symbol.

`gap-count` (integer)

  Number of gapped beams for tremolo.

`glyph` (string)

  A string determining what ‘style’ of glyph is typeset. Valid choices depend on the function that is reading this property.

`glyph-name-alist` (list)

  An alist of key-string pairs.

`grow-direction` (direction)

  Crescendo or decrescendo?

`hair-thickness` (number)

  Thickness of the thin line in a bar line.

`harp-pedal-details` (list)

  An alist of detailed grob properties for harp pedal diagrams. Each alist entry consists of a `(property . value)` pair. The properties which can be included in harp-pedal-details include the following:

  - `box-offset` – Vertical shift of the center of flat/sharp pedal boxes above/below the horizontal line. Default value 0.8.
  - `box-width` – Width of each pedal box. Default value 0.4.
  - `box-height` – Height of each pedal box. Default value 1.0.
  - `space-before-divider` – Space between boxes before the first divider (so that the diagram can be made symmetric). Default value 0.8.
  - `space-after-divider` – Space between boxes after the first divider. Default value 0.8.
  - `circle-thickness` – Thickness (in unit of the line-thickness) of the ellipse around circled pedals. Default value 0.5.
  - `circle-x-padding` – Padding in X direction of the ellipse around circled pedals. Default value 0.15.
  - `circle-y-padding` – Padding in Y direction of the ellipse around circled pedals. Default value 0.2.
`head-direction` (direction)

  Are the note heads left or right in a semitie?

`height` (dimension, in staff space)

  Height of an object in `staff-space` units.

`height-limit` (dimension, in staff space)

  Maximum slur height: The longer the slur, the closer it is to this height.

`horizontal-shift` (integer)

  An integer that identifies ranking of `NoteColumn`s for horizontal shifting. This is used by note-collision-interface.

`horizontal-skylines` (unknown)

  Two skylines, one to the left and one to the right of this grob.

`ignore-collision` (boolean)

  If set, don’t do note collision resolution on this `NoteColumn`.

`implicit` (boolean)

  Is this an implicit bass figure?

`inspect-index` (integer)

  If debugging is set, set beam and slur configuration to this index, and print the respective scores.

`inspect-quants` (pair of numbers)

  If debugging is set, set beam and slur quants to this position, and print the respective scores.

`keep-fixed-while-stretching` (boolean)

  A grob with this property set to true is fixed relative to the staff above it when systems are stretched.

`keep-inside-line` (boolean)

  If set, this column cannot have objects sticking into the margin.

`kern` (dimension, in staff space)

  Amount of extra white space to add. For bar lines, this is the amount of space after a thick line.

`knee` (boolean)

  Is this beam kneed?

`knee-spacing-correction` (number)

  Factor for the optical correction amount for kneed beams. Set between `0` for no correction and `1` for full correction.

`labels` (list)

  List of labels (symbols) placed on a column

`layer` (integer)

  The output layer (a value between 0 and 2): Layers define the order of printing objects. Objects in lower layers are overprinted by objects in higher layers.

`ledger-line-thickness` (pair of numbers)

  The thickness of ledger lines. It is the sum of 2 numbers: The first is the factor for line thickness, and the second for staff space. Both contributions are added.

`left-bound-info` (list)

  An alist of properties for determining attachments of spanners to edges.

`left-padding` (dimension, in staff space)

  The amount of space that is put left to an object (e.g., a group of accidentals).

`length` (dimension, in staff space)

  User override for the stem length of unbeamed stems.

`length-fraction` (number)

  Multiplier for lengths. Used for determining ledger lines and stem lengths.

`line-break-penalty` (number)

  Penalty for a line break at this column. This affects the choices of the line breaker; it avoids a line break at a column with a positive penalty and prefers a line break at a column with a negative penalty.

`line-break-permission` (symbol)

  Instructs the line breaker on whether to put a line break at this column. Can be `force` or `allow`.

`line-break-system-details` (list)

  An alist of properties to use if this column is the start of a system.

`line-count` (integer)

  The number of staff lines.

`line-positions` (list)

  Vertical positions of staff lines.

`line-thickness` (number)

  The thickness of the tie or slur contour.

`long-text` (markup)

  Text markup. See Formatting text.

`max-beam-connect` (integer)

  Maximum number of beams to connect to beams from this stem. Further beams are typeset as beamlets.

`max-stretch` (number)

  The maximum amount that this `VerticalAxisGroup` can be vertically stretched (for example, in order to better fill a page).

`measure-count` (integer)

  The number of measures for a multi-measure rest.

`measure-length` (moment)

  Length of a measure. Used in some spacing situations.

`merge-differently-dotted` (boolean)

  Merge note heads in collisions, even if they have a different number of dots. This is normal notation for some types of polyphonic music.

  `merge-differently-dotted` only applies to opposing stem directions (i.e., voice 1 & 2).

`merge-differently-headed` (boolean)

  Merge note heads in collisions, even if they have different note heads. The smaller of the two heads is rendered invisible. This is used in polyphonic guitar notation. The value of this setting is used by note-collision-interface.

  `merge-differently-headed` only applies to opposing stem directions (i.e., voice 1 & 2).

`minimum-X-extent` (pair of numbers)

  Minimum size of an object in X dimension, measured in `staff-space` units.

`minimum-Y-extent` (pair of numbers)

  Minimum size of an object in Y dimension, measured in `staff-space` units.

`minimum-distance` (dimension, in staff space)

  Minimum distance between rest and notes or beam.

`minimum-length` (dimension, in staff space)

  Try to make a spanner at least this long, normally in the horizontal direction. This requires an appropriate callback for the `springs-and-rods` property. If added to a `Tie`, this sets the minimum distance between noteheads.

`minimum-length-fraction` (number)

  Minimum length of ledger line as fraction of note head size.

`minimum-space` (dimension, in staff space)

  Minimum distance that the victim should move (after padding).

`neutral-direction` (direction)

  Which direction to take in the center of the staff.

`neutral-position` (number)

  Position (in half staff spaces) where to flip the direction of custos stem.

`next` (layout object)

  Object that is next relation (e.g., the lyric syllable following an extender).

`no-alignment` (boolean)

  If set, don’t place this grob in a `VerticalAlignment`; rather, place it using its own `Y-offset` callback.

`no-ledgers` (boolean)

  If set, don’t draw ledger lines on this object.

`no-stem-extend` (boolean)

  If set, notes with ledger lines do not get stems extending to the middle staff line.

`non-default` (boolean)

  Set for manually specified clefs.

`non-musical` (boolean)

  True if the grob belongs to a `NonMusicalPaperColumn`.

`note-names` (vector)

  Vector of strings containing names for easy-notation note heads.

`outside-staff-horizontal-padding` (number)

  By default, an outside-staff-object can be placed so that is it very close to another grob horizontally. If this property is set, the outside-staff-object is raised so that it is not so close to its neighbor.

`outside-staff-padding` (number)

  The padding to place between this grob and the staff when spacing according to `outside-staff-priority`.

`outside-staff-priority` (number)

  If set, the grob is positioned outside the staff in such a way as to avoid all collisions. In case of a potential collision, the grob with the smaller `outside-staff-priority` is closer to the staff.

`packed-spacing` (boolean)

  If set, the notes are spaced as tightly as possible.

`padding` (dimension, in staff space)

  Add this much extra space between objects that are next to each other.

`padding-pairs` (list)

  An alist mapping `(name . name)` to distances.

`page-break-penalty` (number)

  Penalty for page break at this column. This affects the choices of the page breaker; it avoids a page break at a column with a positive penalty and prefers a page break at a column with a negative penalty.

`page-break-permission` (symbol)

  Instructs the page breaker on whether to put a page break at this column. Can be `force` or `allow`.

`page-turn-penalty` (number)

  Penalty for a page turn at this column. This affects the choices of the page breaker; it avoids a page turn at a column with a positive penalty and prefers a page turn at a column with a negative penalty.

`page-turn-permission` (symbol)

  Instructs the page breaker on whether to put a page turn at this column. Can be `force` or `allow`.

`parenthesized` (boolean)

  Parenthesize this grob.

`positions` (pair of numbers)

  Pair of staff coordinates `(left . right)`, where both left and right are in `staff-space` units of the current staff. For slurs, this value selects which slur candidate to use; if extreme positions are requested, the closest one is taken.

`prefer-dotted-right` (boolean)

  For note collisions, prefer to shift dotted up-note to the right, rather than shifting just the dot.

`ratio` (number)

  Parameter for slur shape. The higher this number, the quicker the slur attains its `height-limit`.

`remove-empty` (boolean)

  If set, remove group if it contains no interesting items.

`remove-first` (boolean)

  Remove the first staff of an orchestral score?

`restore-first` (boolean)

  Print a natural before the accidental.

`rhythmic-location` (rhythmic location)

  Where (bar number, measure position) in the score.

`right-bound-info` (list)

  An alist of properties for determining attachments of spanners to edges.

`right-padding` (dimension, in staff space)

  Space to insert on the right side of an object (e.g., between note and its accidentals).

`rotation` (list)

  Number of degrees to rotate this object, and what point to rotate around. For example, `#'(45 0 0)` rotates by 45 degrees around the center of this object.

`same-direction-correction` (number)

  Optical correction amount for stems that are placed in tight configurations. This amount is used for stems with the same direction to compensate for note head to stem distance.

`script-priority` (number)

  A sorting key that determines in what order a script is within a stack of scripts.

`self-alignment-X` (number)

  Specify alignment of an object. The value `-1` means left aligned, `0` centered, and `1` right-aligned in X direction. Other numerical values may also be specified.

`self-alignment-Y` (number)

  Like `self-alignment-X` but for the Y axis.

`shorten-pair` (pair of numbers)

  The lengths to shorten a text-spanner on both sides, for example a pedal bracket. Positive values shorten the text-spanner, while negative values lengthen it.

`shortest-duration-space` (dimension, in staff space)

  Start with this much space for the shortest duration. This is expressed in `spacing-increment` as unit. See also spacing-spanner-interface.

`shortest-playing-duration` (moment)

  The duration of the shortest note playing here.

`shortest-starter-duration` (moment)

  The duration of the shortest note that starts here.

`side-axis` (number)

  If the value is `#X` (or equivalently `0`), the object is placed horizontally next to the other object. If the value is `#Y` or `1`, it is placed vertically.

`side-relative-direction` (direction)

  Multiply direction of `direction-source` with this to get the direction of this object.

`size` (number)

  Size of object, relative to standard size.

`skyline-horizontal-padding` (number)

  For determining the vertical distance between two staves, it is possible to have a configuration which would result in a tight interleaving of grobs from the top staff and the bottom staff. The larger this parameter is, the farther apart the staves are placed in such a configuration.

`slash-negative-kern` (number)

  The space to remove between slashes in percent repeat glyphs. Larger values bring the two elements closer together.

`slope` (number)

  The slope of this object.

`slur-padding` (number)

  Extra distance between slur and script.

`space-alist` (list)

  A table that specifies distances between prefatory items, like clef and time-signature. The format is an alist of spacing tuples: `(break-align-symbol type . distance)`, where type can be the symbols `minimum-space` or `extra-space`.

`space-to-barline` (boolean)

  If set, the distance between a note and the following non-musical column will be measured to the bar line instead of to the beginning of the non-musical column. If there is a clef change followed by a bar line, for example, this means that we will try to space the non-musical column as though the clef is not there.

`spacing-increment` (number)

  Add this much space for a doubled duration. Typically, the width of a note head. See also spacing-spanner-interface.

`springs-and-rods` (boolean)

  Dummy variable for triggering spacing routines.

`stacking-dir` (direction)

  Stack objects in which direction?

`staff-padding` (dimension, in staff space)

  Maintain this much space between reference points and the staff. Its effect is to align objects of differing sizes (like the dynamics p and f) on their baselines.

`staff-position` (number)

  Vertical position, measured in half staff spaces, counted from the middle line.

`staff-space` (dimension, in staff space)

  Amount of space between staff lines, expressed in global `staff-space`.

`stem-attachment` (pair of numbers)

  An `(x . y)` pair where the stem attaches to the notehead.

`stem-end-position` (number)

  Where does the stem end (the end is opposite to the support-head)?

`stem-spacing-correction` (number)

  Optical correction amount for stems that are placed in tight configurations. For opposite directions, this amount is the correction for two normal sized stems that overlap completely.

`stemlet-length` (number)

  How long should be a stem over a rest?

`stencil` (unknown)

  The symbol to print.

`stencils` (list)

  Multiple stencils, used as intermediate value.

`strict-grace-spacing` (boolean)

  If set, main notes are spaced normally, then grace notes are put left of the musical columns fot the main notes.

`strict-note-spacing` (boolean)

  If set, unbroken columns with non-musical material (clefs, bar lines, etc.) are not spaced separately, but put before musical columns.

`stroke-style` (string)

  Set to `"grace"` to turn stroke through flag on.

`style` (symbol)

  This setting determines in what style a grob is typeset. Valid choices depend on the `stencil` callback reading this property.

`text` (markup)

  Text markup. See Formatting text.

`text-direction` (direction)

  This controls the ordering of the words. The default `RIGHT` is for roman text. Arabic or Hebrew should use `LEFT`.

`thick-thickness` (number)

  Bar line thickness, measured in `line-thickness`.

`thickness` (number)

  Line thickness, generally measured in `line-thickness`.

`thin-kern` (number)

  The space after a hair-line in a bar line.

`threshold` (pair of numbers)

  `(min . max)`, where min and max are dimensions in staff space.

`tie-configuration` (list)

  List of `(position . dir)` pairs, indicating the desired tie configuration, where position is the offset from the center of the staff in staff space and dir indicates the direction of the tie (`1`=>up, `-1`=>down, `0`=>center). A non-pair entry in the list causes the corresponding tie to be formatted automatically.

`to-barline` (boolean)

  If true, the spanner will stop at the bar line just before it would otherwise stop.

`toward-stem-shift` (number)

  Amount by which scripts are shifted toward the stem if their direction coincides with the stem direction. `0.0` means keep the default position (centered on the note head), `1.0` means centered on the stem. Interpolated values are possible.

`transparent` (boolean)

  This makes the grob invisible.

`uniform-stretching` (boolean)

  If set, items stretch proportionally to their durations. This looks better in complex polyphonic patterns.

`used` (boolean)

  If set, this spacing column is kept in the spacing problem.

`vertical-skylines` (unknown)

  Two skylines, one above and one below this grob.

`when` (moment)

  Global time step associated with this column happen?

`width` (dimension, in staff space)

  The width of a grob measured in staff space.

`word-space` (dimension, in staff space)

  Space to insert between words in texts.

`zigzag-length` (dimension, in staff space)

  The length of the lines of a zigzag, relative to `zigzag-width`. A value of `1` gives 60-degree zigzags.

`zigzag-width` (dimension, in staff space)

  The width of one zigzag squiggle. This number is adjusted slightly so that the glissando line can be constructed from a whole number of squiggles.

## B.14 Identifiers

`acciaccatura` - music (music)

  Create an acciaccatura from the following music expression

`addChordShape` - key-symbol (symbol) tuning (pair) shape-definition (unknown)

  Add chord shape shape-definition to the chord-shape-table hash with the key (cons key-symbol tuning).

`addInstrumentDefinition` - name (string) lst (list)

  Create instrument name with properties list.

`addQuote` - name (string) music (music)

  Define music as a quotable music expression named name

`afterGrace` - main (music) grace (music)

  Create grace note(s) after a main music expression.

`allowPageTurn`

  Allow a page turn. May be used at toplevel (ie between scores or markups), or inside a score.

`applyContext` - proc (procedure)

  Modify context properties with Scheme procedure proc.

`applyMusic` - func (procedure) music (music)

  Apply procedure func to music.

`applyOutput` - ctx (symbol) proc (procedure)

  Apply function `proc` to every layout object in context `ctx`

`appoggiatura` - music (music)

  Create an appoggiatura from music

`assertBeamQuant` - l (pair) r (pair)

  Testing function: check whether the beam quants l and r are correct

`assertBeamSlope` - comp (procedure)

  Testing function: check whether the slope of the beam is the same as `comp`

`autochange` - music (music)

  Make voices that switch between staves automatically

`balloonGrobText` - grob-name (symbol) offset (pair of numbers) text (markup)

  Attach text to grob-name at offset offset (use like `\once`)

`balloonText` - offset (pair of numbers) text (markup)

  Attach text at offset (use like `\tweak`)

`bar` - type (string)

  Insert a bar line of type type

`barNumberCheck` - n (integer)

  Print a warning if the current bar number is not n.

`bendAfter` - delta (unknown)

  Create a fall or doit of pitch interval delta.

`breathe`

  Insert a breath mark.

`clef` - type (string)

  Set the current clef to type.

`cueDuring` - what (string) dir (direction) main-music (music)

  Insert contents of quote what corresponding to main-music, in a CueVoice oriented by dir.

`displayLilyMusic` - music (music)

  Display the LilyPond input representation of music to the console.

`displayMusic` - music (music)

  Display the internal representation of music to the console.

`endSpanners` - music (music)

  Terminate the next spanner prematurely after exactly one note without the need of a specific end spanner.

`featherDurations` - factor (moment) argument (music)

  Adjust durations of music in argument by rational factor.

`grace` - music (music)

  Insert music as grace notes.

`includePageLayoutFile`

  Include the file <basename>-page-layout.ly. Deprecated as part of two-pass spacing.

`instrumentSwitch` - name (string)

  Switch instrument to name, which must be predefined with `\addInstrumentDefinition`.

`keepWithTag` - tag (symbol) music (music)

  Include only elements of music that are tagged with tag.

`killCues` - music (music)

  Remove cue notes from music.

`label` - label (symbol)

  Create label as a bookmarking label

`makeClusters` - arg (music)

  Display chords in arg as clusters

`musicMap` - proc (procedure) mus (music)

  (undocumented; fixme)

`noPageBreak`

  Forbid a page break. May be used at toplevel (ie between scores or markups), or inside a score.

`noPageTurn`

  Forbid a page turn. May be used at toplevel (ie between scores or markups), or inside a score.

`octaveCheck` - pitch-note (music)

  octave check

`ottava` - octave (number)

  set the octavation

`overrideProperty` - name (string) property (symbol) value (any type)

  Set property to value in all grobs named name. The name argument is a string of the form `"Context.GrobName"` or `"GrobName"`

`pageBreak`

  Force a page break. May be used at toplevel (ie between scores or markups), or inside a score.

`pageTurn`

  Force a page turn between two scores or top-level markups.

`parallelMusic` - voice-ids (list) music (music)

  Define parallel music sequences, separated by ’|’ (bar check signs), and assign them to the identifiers provided in voice-ids.

  voice-ids: a list of music identifiers (symbols containing only letters)

  music: a music sequence, containing BarChecks as limiting expressions.

  Example:

        \parallelMusic #'(A B C) {
          c c | d d | e e |
          d d | e e | f f |
        }
      <==>
        A = { c c | d d | }
        B = { d d | e e | }
        C = { e e | f f | }

`parenthesize` - arg (music)

  Tag arg to be parenthesized.

`partcombine` - part1 (music) part2 (music)

  (undocumented; fixme)

`pitchedTrill` - main-note (music) secondary-note (music)

  (undocumented; fixme)

`pointAndClickOff`

  (undocumented; fixme)

`pointAndClickOn`

  (undocumented; fixme)

`quoteDuring` - what (string) main-music (music)

  (undocumented; fixme)

`removeWithTag` - tag (symbol) music (music)

  Remove elements of music that are tagged with tag.

`resetRelativeOctave` - reference-note (music)

  Set the octave inside a \relative section.

`rightHandFinger` - finger (number or string)

  Apply finger as a fingering indication.

`scaleDurations` - fraction (pair of numbers) music (music)

  Multiply the duration of events in music by fraction.

`scoreTweak` - name (string)

  Include the score tweak, if exists.

`shiftDurations` - dur (integer) dots (integer) arg (music)

  Scale arg up by a factor of 2^dur*(2-(1/2)^dots).

`spacingTweaks` - parameters (list)

  Set the system stretch, by reading the ’system-stretch property of the ‘parameters’ assoc list.

`storePredefinedDiagram` - chord (music) tuning (pair) diagram-definition (unknown)

  Add predefined fret diagram defined by diagram-definition for the chord pitches chord and the stringTuning tuning.

`tag` - tag (symbol) arg (music)

  Add tag to the `tags` property of arg.

`tocItem` - text (markup)

  Add a line to the table of content, using the `tocItemMarkup` paper variable markup

`transposedCueDuring` - what (string) dir (direction) pitch-note (music) main-music (music)

  Insert notes from the part what into a voice called `cue`, using the transposition defined by pitch-note. This happens simultaneously with main-music, which is usually a rest. The argument dir determines whether the cue notes should be notated as a first or second voice.

`transposition` - pitch-note (music)

  Set instrument transposition

`tweak` - sym (symbol) val (any type) arg (music)

  Add `sym . val` to the `tweaks` property of arg.

`unfoldRepeats` - music (music)

  (undocumented; fixme)

`withMusicProperty` - sym (symbol) val (any type) music (music)

  Set sym to val in music.

## B.15 Scheme functions

Function: dispatcher x

  Is x a `Dispatcher` object?

Function: listener x

  Is x a `Listener` object?

Function: ly:add-file-name-alist alist

  Add mappings for error messages from alist.

Function: ly:add-interface a b c

  Add an interface description.

Function: ly:add-listener list disp cl

  Add the listener list to the dispatcher disp. Whenever disp hears an event of class cl, it is forwarded to list.

Function: ly:add-option sym val description

  Add a program option sym with default val.

Function: ly:all-grob-interfaces

  Get a hash table with all interface descriptions.

Function: ly:all-options

  Get all option settings in an alist.

Function: ly:all-stencil-expressions

  Return all symbols recognized as stencil expressions.

Function: ly:assoc-get key alist default-value

  Return value if key in alist, else `default-value` (or `#f` if not specified).

Function: ly:book-add-bookpart! book-smob book-part

  Add book_part to book-smob book part list.

Function: ly:book-add-score! book-smob score

  Add score to book-smob score list.

Function: ly:book-process book-smob default-paper default-layout output

  Print book. output is passed to the backend unchanged. For example, it may be a string (for file based outputs) or a socket (for network based output).

Function: ly:book-process-to-systems book-smob default-paper default-layout output

  Print book. output is passed to the backend unchanged. For example, it may be a string (for file based outputs) or a socket (for network based output).

Function: ly:box? x

  Is x a `Box` object?

Function: ly:bp num

  num bigpoints (1/72th inch).

Function: ly:bracket a iv t p

  Make a bracket in direction a. The extent of the bracket is given by iv. The wings protrude by an amount of p, which may be negative. The thickness is given by t.

Function: ly:broadcast disp ev

  Send the stream event ev to the dispatcher disp.

Function: ly:camel-case->lisp-identifier name-sym

  Convert `FooBar_Bla` to `foo-bar-bla` style symbol.

Function: ly:chain-assoc-get key achain dfault

  Return value for key from a list of alists achain. If no entry is found, return dfault or `#f` if no dfault is specified.

Function: ly:clear-anonymous-modules

  Plug a GUILE 1.6 and 1.7 memory leak by breaking a weak reference pointer cycle explicitly.

Function: ly:cm num

  num cm.

Function: ly:command-line-code

  The Scheme code specified on command-line with ‘`-e`’.

Function: ly:command-line-options

  The Scheme options specified on command-line with ‘`-d`’.

Function: ly:command-line-verbose?

  Was `be_verbose_global` set?

Function: ly:connect-dispatchers to from

  Make the dispatcher to listen to events from from.

Function: ly:context-event-source context

  Return `event-source` of context context.

Function: ly:context-events-below context

  Return a `stream-distributor` that distributes all events from context and all its subcontexts.

Function: ly:context-find context name

  Find a parent of context that has name or alias name. Return `#f` if not found.

Function: ly:context-grob-definition context name

  Return the definition of name (a symbol) within context as an alist.

Function: ly:context-id context

  Return the ID string of context, i.e., for `\context Voice = one …` return the string `one`.

Function: ly:context-name context

  Return the name of context, i.e., for `\context Voice = one …` return the symbol `Voice`.

Function: ly:context-now context

  Return `now-moment` of context context.

Function: ly:context-parent context

  Return the parent of context, `#f` if none.

Function: ly:context-property c name

  Return the value of name from context c.

Function: ly:context-property-where-defined context name

  Return the context above context where name is defined.

Function: ly:context-pushpop-property context grob eltprop val

  Do a single `\override` or `\revert` operation in context. The grob definition grob is extended with eltprop (if val is specified) or reverted (if unspecified).

Function: ly:context-set-property! context name val

  Set value of property name in context context to val.

Function: ly:context-unset-property context name

  Unset value of property name in context context.

Function: ly:context? x

  Is x a `Context` object?

Function: ly:default-scale

  Get the global default scale.

Function: ly:dimension? d

  Return d as a number. Used to distinguish length variables from normal numbers.

Function: ly:dir? s

  A type predicate. The direction `s` is `-1`, `0` or `1`, where `-1` represents left or down and `1` represents right or up.

Function: ly:duration->string dur

  Convert dur to a string.

Function: ly:duration-dot-count dur

  Extract the dot count from dur.

Function: ly:duration-factor dur

  Extract the compression factor from dur. Return it as a pair.

Function: ly:duration-length dur

  The length of the duration as a `moment`.

Function: ly:duration-log dur

  Extract the duration log from dur.

Function: ly:duration<? p1 p2

  Is p1 shorter than p2?

Function: ly:duration? x

  Is x a `Duration` object?

Function: ly:effective-prefix

  Return effective prefix.

Function: ly:error str rest

  A Scheme callable function to issue the error str. The error is formatted with `format` and rest.

Function: ly:eval-simple-closure delayed closure scm-start scm-end

  Evaluate a simple closure with the given delayed argument. If scm-start and scm-end are defined, evaluate it purely with those start and end points.

Function: ly:event-deep-copy m

  Copy m and all sub expressions of m.

Function: ly:event-property sev sym

  Get the property sym of stream event mus. If sym is undefined, return `'()`.

Function: ly:event-set-property! ev sym val

  Set property sym in event ev to val.

Function: ly:expand-environment str

  Expand `$VAR` and `${VAR}` in str.

Function: ly:export arg

  Export a Scheme object to the parser so it is treated as an identifier.

Function: ly:find-file name

  Return the absolute file name of name, or `#f` if not found.

Function: ly:font-config-add-directory dir

  Add directory dir to FontConfig.

Function: ly:font-config-add-font font

  Add font font to FontConfig.

Function: ly:font-config-display-fonts

  Dump a list of all fonts visible to FontConfig.

Function: ly:font-config-get-font-file name

  Get the file for font name.

Function: ly:font-design-size font

  Given the font metric font, return the design size, relative to the current output-scale.

Function: ly:font-file-name font

  Given the font metric font, return the corresponding file name.

Function: ly:font-get-glyph font name

  Return a stencil from font for the glyph named name. If the glyph is not available, return an empty stencil.

  Note that this command can only be used to access glyphs from fonts loaded with `ly:system-font-load`; currently, this means either the Emmentaler or Aybabtu fonts, corresponding to the font encodings `fetaMusic` and `fetaBraces`, respectively.

Function: ly:font-glyph-name-to-charcode font name

  Return the character code for glyph name in font.

  Note that this command can only be used to access glyphs from fonts loaded with `ly:system-font-load`; currently, this means either the Emmentaler or Aybabtu fonts, corresponding to the font encodings `fetaMusic` and `fetaBraces`, respectively.

Function: ly:font-glyph-name-to-index font name

  Return the index for name in font.

  Note that this command can only be used to access glyphs from fonts loaded with `ly:system-font-load`; currently, this means either the Emmentaler or Aybabtu fonts, corresponding to the font encodings `fetaMusic` and `fetaBraces`, respectively.

Function: ly:font-index-to-charcode font index

  Return the character code for index in font.

  Note that this command can only be used to access glyphs from fonts loaded with `ly:system-font-load`; currently, this means either the Emmentaler or Aybabtu fonts, corresponding to the font encodings `fetaMusic` and `fetaBraces`, respectively.

Function: ly:font-magnification font

  Given the font metric font, return the magnification, relative to the current output-scale.

Function: ly:font-metric? x

  Is x a `Font_metric` object?

Function: ly:font-name font

  Given the font metric font, return the corresponding name.

Function: ly:font-sub-fonts font

  Given the font metric font of an OpenType font, return the names of the subfonts within font.

Function: ly:format str rest

  LilyPond specific format, supporting `~a` and `~[0-9]f`.

Function: ly:format-output context

  Given a global context in its final state, process it and return the `Music_output` object in its final state.

Function: ly:get-all-function-documentation

  Get a hash table with all LilyPond Scheme extension functions.

Function: ly:get-all-translators

  Return a list of all translator objects that may be instantiated.

Function: ly:get-glyph font index

  Retrieve a stencil for the glyph numbered index in font.

  Note that this command can only be used to access glyphs from fonts loaded with `ly:system-font-load`; currently, this means either the Emmentaler or Aybabtu fonts, corresponding to the font encodings `fetaMusic` and `fetaBraces`, respectively.

Function: ly:get-listened-event-classes

  Return a list of all event classes that some translator listens to.

Function: ly:get-option var

  Get a global option setting.

Function: ly:gettext original

  A Scheme wrapper function for `gettext`.

Function: ly:grob-alist-chain grob global

  Get an alist chain for grob grob, with global as the global default. If unspecified, `font-defaults` from the layout block is taken.

Function: ly:grob-array-length grob-arr

  Return the length of grob-arr.

Function: ly:grob-array-ref grob-arr index

  Retrieve the indexth element of grob-arr.

Function: ly:grob-array? x

  Is x a `Grob_array` object?

Function: ly:grob-basic-properties grob

  Get the immutable properties of grob.

Function: ly:grob-common-refpoint grob other axis

  Find the common refpoint of grob and other for axis.

Function: ly:grob-common-refpoint-of-array grob others axis

  Find the common refpoint of grob and others (a grob-array) for axis.

Function: ly:grob-default-font grob

  Return the default font for grob gr.

Function: ly:grob-extent grob refp axis

  Get the extent in axis direction of grob relative to the grob refp.

Function: ly:grob-interfaces grob

  Return the interfaces list of grob grob.

Function: ly:grob-layout grob

  Get `\layout` definition from grob grob.

Function: ly:grob-object grob sym

  Return the value of a pointer in grob g of property sym. It returns `'()` (end-of-list) if sym is undefined in g.

Function: ly:grob-original grob

  Return the unbroken original grob of grob.

Function: ly:grob-parent grob axis

  Get the parent of grob. axis is 0 for the X-axis, 1 for the Y-axis.

Function: ly:grob-pq<? a b

  Compare two grob priority queue entries. This is an internal function.

Function: ly:grob-properties grob

  Get the mutable properties of grob.

Function: ly:grob-property grob sym deflt

  Return the value of a value in grob g of property sym. It returns `'()` (end-of-list) or deflt (if specified) if sym is undefined in g.

Function: ly:grob-property-data grob sym

  Retrieve sym for grob but don’t process callbacks.

Function: ly:grob-relative-coordinate grob refp axis

  Get the coordinate in axis direction of grob relative to the grob refp.

Function: ly:grob-robust-relative-extent grob refp axis

  Get the extent in axis direction of grob relative to the grob refp, or `(0,0)` if empty.

Function: ly:grob-script-priority-less a b

  Compare two grobs by script priority. For internal use.

Function: ly:grob-set-property! grob sym val

  Set sym in grob grob to value val.

Function: ly:grob-staff-position sg

  Return the Y-position of sg relative to the staff.

Function: ly:grob-suicide! grob

  Kill grob.

Function: ly:grob-system grob

  Return the system grob of grob.

Function: ly:grob-translate-axis! grob d a

  Translate g on axis a over distance d.

Function: ly:grob? x

  Is x a `Grob` object?

Function: ly:gulp-file name size

  Read the file name, and return its contents in a string. The file is looked up using the search path.

Function: ly:hash-table-keys tab

  Return a list of keys in tab.

Function: ly:inch num

  num inches.

Function: ly:input-both-locations sip

  Return input location in sip as `(file-name first-line first-column last-line last-column)`.

Function: ly:input-file-line-char-column sip

  Return input location in sip as `(file-name line char column)`.

Function: ly:input-location? x

  Is x an `input-location`?

Function: ly:input-message sip msg rest

  Print msg as a GNU compliant error message, pointing to the location in sip. msg is interpreted similar to `format`’s argument, using rest.

Function: ly:interpret-music-expression mus ctx

  Interpret the music expression mus in the global context ctx. The context is returned in its final state.

Function: ly:interpret-stencil-expression expr func arg1 offset

  Parse expr, feed bits to func with first arg arg1 having offset offset.

Function: ly:intlog2 d

  The 2-logarithm of 1/d.

Function: ly:is-listened-event-class sym

  Is sym a listened event class?

Function: ly:item-break-dir it

  The break status direction of item it. `-1` means end of line, `0` unbroken, and `1` beginning of line.

Function: ly:item? g

  Is g an `Item` object?

Function: ly:iterator? x

  Is x a `Music_iterator` object?

Function: ly:lexer-keywords lexer

  Return a list of `(KEY . CODE)` pairs, signifying the LilyPond reserved words list.

Function: ly:lily-lexer? x

  Is x a `Lily_lexer` object?

Function: ly:lily-parser? x

  Is x a `Lily_parser` object?

Function: ly:make-book paper header scores

  Make a `\book` of paper and header (which may be `#f` as well) containing `\scores`.

Function: ly:make-book-part scores

  Make a `\bookpart` containing `\scores`.

Function: ly:make-dispatcher

  Return a newly created dispatcher.

Function: ly:make-duration length dotcount num den

  length is the negative logarithm (base 2) of the duration: 1 is a half note, 2 is a quarter note, 3 is an eighth note, etc. The number of dots after the note is given by the optional argument dotcount.

  The duration factor is optionally given by num and den.

  A duration is a musical duration, i.e., a length of time described by a power of two (whole, half, quarter, etc.) and a number of augmentation dots.

Function: ly:make-global-context output-def

  Set up a global interpretation context, using the output block output_def. The context is returned.

Function: ly:make-global-translator global

  Create a translator group and connect it to the global context global. The translator group is returned.

Function: ly:make-listener callback

  Create a listener. Any time the listener hears an object, it will call callback with that object.

  callback should take exactly one argument.

Function: ly:make-moment n d gn gd

  Create the rational number with main timing n/d, and optional grace timing gn/gd.

  A moment is a point in musical time. It consists of a pair of rationals (m, g), where m is the timing for the main notes, and g the timing for grace notes. In absence of grace notes, g is zero.

Function: ly:make-music props

  Make a C++ `Music` object and initialize it with props.

  This function is for internal use and is only called by `make-music`, which is the preferred interface for creating music objects.

Function: ly:make-music-function signature func

  Make a function to process music, to be used for the parser. `func` is the function, and `signature` describes its arguments. `signature` is a list containing either `ly:music?` predicates or other type predicates.

Function: ly:make-output-def

  Make an output definition.

Function: ly:make-page-label-marker label

  Return page marker with label.

Function: ly:make-page-permission-marker symbol permission

  Return page marker with page breaking and turning permissions.

Function: ly:make-pango-description-string chain size

  Make a `PangoFontDescription` string for the property alist chain at size size.

Function: ly:make-paper-outputter port format

  Create an outputter that evaluates within `output-`format, writing to port.

Function: ly:make-pitch octave note alter

  octave is specified by an integer, zero for the octave containing middle C. note is a number indexing the global default scale, with 0 corresponding to pitch C and 6 usually corresponding to pitch B. alter is a rational number of 200-cent whole tones for alteration.

Function: ly:make-prob type init rest

  Create a `Prob` object.

Function: ly:make-scale steps

  Create a scale. The argument is a vector of rational numbers, each of which represents the number of 200 cent tones of a pitch above the tonic.

Function: ly:make-score music

  Return score with music encapsulated in score.

Function: ly:make-simple-closure expr

  Make a simple closure. expr should be form of `(func a1 A2 …)`, and will be invoked as `(func delayed-arg a1 a2 …)`.

Function: ly:make-stencil expr xext yext

  Stencils are device independent output expressions. They carry two pieces of information:

  1. A specification of how to print this object. This specification is processed by the output backends, for example ‘`scm/output-ps.scm`’.
  2. The vertical and horizontal extents of the object, given as pairs. If an extent is unspecified (or if you use `(1000 . -1000)` as its value), it is taken to be empty.

Function: ly:make-stream-event cl proplist

  Create a stream event of class cl with the given mutable property list.

Function: ly:message str rest

  A Scheme callable function to issue the message str. The message is formatted with `format` and rest.

Function: ly:minimal-breaking pb

  Break (pages and lines) the `Paper_book` object pb without looking for optimal spacing: stack as many lines on a page before moving to the next one.

Function: ly:mm num

  num mm.

Function: ly:module->alist mod

  Dump the contents of module mod as an alist.

Function: ly:module-copy dest src

  Copy all bindings from module src into dest.

Function: ly:modules-lookup modules sym def

  Look up sym in the list modules, returning the first occurence. If not found, return def or `#f` if def isn’t specified.

Function: ly:moment-add a b

  Add two moments.

Function: ly:moment-div a b

  Divide two moments.

Function: ly:moment-grace-denominator mom

  Extract denominator from grace timing.

Function: ly:moment-grace-numerator mom

  Extract numerator from grace timing.

Function: ly:moment-main-denominator mom

  Extract denominator from main timing.

Function: ly:moment-main-numerator mom

  Extract numerator from main timing.

Function: ly:moment-mod a b

  Modulo of two moments.

Function: ly:moment-mul a b

  Multiply two moments.

Function: ly:moment-sub a b

  Subtract two moments.

Function: ly:moment<? a b

  Compare two moments.

Function: ly:moment? x

  Is x a `Moment` object?

Function: ly:music-compress m factor

  Compress music object m by moment factor.

Function: ly:music-deep-copy m

  Copy m and all sub expressions of m.

Function: ly:music-duration-compress mus fact

  Compress mus by factor fact, which is a `Moment`.

Function: ly:music-duration-length mus

  Extract the duration field from mus and return the length.

Function: ly:music-function-extract x

  Return the Scheme function inside x.

Function: ly:music-function? x

  Is x a `music-function`?

Function: ly:music-length mus

  Get the length of music expression mus and return it as a `Moment` object.

Function: ly:music-list? lst

  Type predicate: Return true if lst is a list of music objects.

Function: ly:music-mutable-properties mus

  Return an alist containing the mutable properties of mus. The immutable properties are not available, since they are constant and initialized by the `make-music` function.

Function: ly:music-output? x

  Is x a `Music_output` object?

Function: ly:music-property mus sym dfault

  Get the property sym of music expression mus. If sym is undefined, return `'()`.

Function: ly:music-set-property! mus sym val

  Set property sym in music expression mus to val.

Function: ly:music-transpose m p

  Transpose m such that central C is mapped to p. Return m.

Function: ly:music? obj

  Type predicate.

Function: ly:note-head::stem-attachment font-metric glyph-name

  Get attachment in font-metric for attaching a stem to notehead glyph-name.

Function: ly:number->string s

  Convert num to a string without generating many decimals.

Function: ly:optimal-breaking pb

  Optimally break (pages and lines) the `Paper_book` object pb to minimize badness in bother vertical and horizontal spacing.

Function: ly:option-usage

  Print `ly:set-option` usage.

Function: ly:otf->cff otf-file-name

  Convert the contents of an OTF file to a CFF file, returning it as a string.

Function: ly:otf-font-glyph-info font glyph

  Given the font metric font of an OpenType font, return the information about named glyph glyph (a string).

Function: ly:otf-font-table-data font tag

  Extract a table tag from font. Return empty string for non-existent tag.

Function: ly:otf-font? font

  Is font an OpenType font?

Function: ly:otf-glyph-list font

  Return a list of glyph names for font.

Function: ly:output-def-clone def

  Clone output definition def.

Function: ly:output-def-lookup pap sym def

  Look up sym in the pap output definition (e.g., `\paper`). Return the value or def (which defaults to `'()`) if undefined.

Function: ly:output-def-parent def

  Get the parent output definition of def.

Function: ly:output-def-scope def

  Get the variable scope inside def.

Function: ly:output-def-set-variable! def sym val

  Set an output definition def variable sym to val.

Function: ly:output-def? def

  Is def a layout definition?

Function: ly:output-description output-def

  Return the description of translators in output-def.

Function: ly:output-formats

  Formats passed to ‘`--format`’ as a list of strings, used for the output.

Function: ly:outputter-close outputter

  Close port of outputter.

Function: ly:outputter-dump-stencil outputter stencil

  Dump stencil expr onto outputter.

Function: ly:outputter-dump-string outputter str

  Dump str onto outputter.

Function: ly:outputter-output-scheme outputter expr

  Eval expr in module of outputter.

Function: ly:outputter-port outputter

  Return output port for outputter.

Function: ly:page-marker? x

  Is x a `Page_marker` object?

Function: ly:page-turn-breaking pb

  Optimally break (pages and lines) the `Paper_book` object pb such that page turns only happen in specified places, returning its pages.

Function: ly:pango-font-physical-fonts f

  Return alist of `(ps-name file-name font-index)` lists for Pango font f.

Function: ly:pango-font? f

  Is f a pango font?

Function: ly:paper-book-pages pb

  Return pages in book pb.

Function: ly:paper-book-paper pb

  Return pages in book pb.

Function: ly:paper-book-performances paper-book

  Return performances in book paper-book.

Function: ly:paper-book-scopes book

  Return scopes in layout book book.

Function: ly:paper-book-systems pb

  Return systems in book pb.

Function: ly:paper-book? x

  Is x a `Paper_book` object?

Function: ly:paper-fonts bp

  Return fonts from the `\paper` block bp.

Function: ly:paper-get-font paper-smob chain

  Return a font metric satisfying the font-qualifiers in the alist chain chain. (An alist chain is a list of alists, containing grob properties.)

Function: ly:paper-get-number layout-smob name

  Return the layout variable name.

Function: ly:paper-outputscale bp

  Get output-scale for bp.

Function: ly:paper-score-paper-systems paper-score

  Return vector of `paper_system` objects from paper-score.

Function: ly:paper-system-minimum-distance sys1 sys2

  Measure the minimum distance between these two paper-systems, using their stored skylines if possible and falling back to their extents otherwise.

Function: ly:paper-system? obj

  Type predicate.

Function: ly:parse-file name

  Parse a single `.ly` file. Upon failure, throw `ly-file-failed` key.

Function: ly:parser-clear-error parser

  Clear the error flag for the parser.

Function: ly:parser-clone parser-smob

  Return a clone of parser-smob.

Function: ly:parser-define! parser-smob symbol val

  Bind symbol to val in parser-smob’s module.

Function: ly:parser-error parser msg input

  Display an error message and make the parser fail.

Function: ly:parser-has-error? parser

  Does parser have an error flag?

Function: ly:parser-lexer parser-smob

  Return the lexer for parser-smob.

Function: ly:parser-lookup parser-smob symbol

  Look up symbol in parser-smob’s module. Return `'()` if not defined.

Function: ly:parser-output-name parser

  Return the base name of the output file.

Function: ly:parser-parse-string parser-smob ly-code

  Parse the string ly-code with parser-smob. Upon failure, throw `ly-file-failed` key.

Function: ly:parser-set-note-names parser names

  Replace current note names in parser. names is an alist of symbols. This only has effect if the current mode is notes.

Function: ly:performance-write performance filename

  Write performance to filename.

Function: ly:pfb->pfa pfb-file-name

  Convert the contents of a PFB file to PFA.

Function: ly:pitch-alteration pp

  Extract the alteration from pitch pp.

Function: ly:pitch-diff pitch root

  Return pitch delta such that pitch transposed by delta equals root.

Function: ly:pitch-negate p

  Negate p.

Function: ly:pitch-notename pp

  Extract the note name from pitch pp.

Function: ly:pitch-octave pp

  Extract the octave from pitch pp.

Function: ly:pitch-quartertones pp

  Calculate the number of quarter tones of pp from middle C.

Function: ly:pitch-semitones pp

  Calculate the number of semitones of pp from middle C.

Function: ly:pitch-steps p

  Number of steps counted from middle C of the pitch p.

Function: ly:pitch-transpose p delta

  Transpose p by the amount delta, where delta is relative to middle C.

Function: ly:pitch<? p1 p2

  Is p1 lexicographically smaller than p2?

Function: ly:pitch? x

  Is x a `Pitch` object?

Function: ly:position-on-line? sg spos

  Return whether pos is on a line of the staff associated with the the grob sg (even on an extender line).

Function: ly:prob-immutable-properties prob

  Retrieve an alist of mutable properties.

Function: ly:prob-mutable-properties prob

  Retrieve an alist of mutable properties.

Function: ly:prob-property obj sym dfault

  Return the value for sym.

Function: ly:prob-property? obj sym

  Is boolean prop sym set?

Function: ly:prob-set-property! obj sym value

  Set property sym of obj to value.

Function: ly:prob-type? obj type

  Is obj the specified prob-type?

Function: ly:prob? x

  Is x a `Prob` object?

Function: ly:programming-error str rest

  A Scheme callable function to issue the internal warning str. The message is formatted with `format` and rest.

Function: ly:progress str rest

  A Scheme callable function to print progress str. The message is formatted with `format` and rest.

Function: ly:property-lookup-stats sym

  Return hash table with a property access corresponding to sym. Choices are `prob`, `grob`, and `context`.

Function: ly:protects

  Return hash of protected objects.

Function: ly:pt num

  num printer points.

Function: ly:register-stencil-expression symbol

  Add symbol as head of a stencil expression.

Function: ly:relative-group-extent elements common axis

  Determine the extent of elements relative to common in the axis direction.

Function: ly:reset-all-fonts

  Forget all about previously loaded fonts.

Function: ly:round-filled-box xext yext blot

  Make a `Stencil` object that prints a black box of dimensions xext, yext and roundness blot.

Function: ly:round-filled-polygon points blot

  Make a `Stencil` object that prints a black polygon with corners at the points defined by points (list of coordinate pairs) and roundness blot.

Function: ly:run-translator mus output-def

  Process mus according to output-def. An interpretation context is set up, and mus is interpreted with it. The context is returned in its final state.

  Optionally, this routine takes an object-key to to uniquely identify the score block containing it.

Function: ly:score-add-output-def! score def

  Add an output definition def to score.

Function: ly:score-embedded-format score layout

  Run score through layout (an output definition) scaled to correct output-scale already, returning a list of layout-lines. This function takes an optional `Object_key` argument.

Function: ly:score-error? score

  Was there an error in the score?

Function: ly:score-header score

  Return score header.

Function: ly:score-music score

  Return score music.

Function: ly:score-output-defs score

  All output definitions in a score.

Function: ly:score-set-header! score module

  Set the score header.

Function: ly:score? x

  Is x a `Score` object?

Function: ly:set-default-scale scale

  Set the global default scale. This determines the tuning of pitches with no accidentals or key signatures. The first pitch is C. Alterations are calculated relative to this scale. The number of pitches in this scale determines the number of scale steps that make up an octave. Usually the 7-note major scale.

Function: ly:set-grob-modification-callback cb

  Specify a procedure that will be called every time LilyPond modifies a grob property. The callback will receive as arguments the grob that is being modified, the name of the C++ file in which the modification was requested, the line number in the C++ file in which the modification was requested, the name of the function in which the modification was requested, the property to be changed, and the new value for the property.

Function: ly:set-middle-C! context

  Set the `middleCPosition` variable in context based on the variables `middleCClefPosition` and middleCOffset.

Function: ly:set-option var val

  Set a program option.

Function: ly:set-property-cache-callback cb

  Specify a procedure that will be called whenever lilypond calculates a callback function and caches the result. The callback will receive as arguments the grob whose property it is, the name of the property, the name of the callback that calculated the property, and the new (cached) value of the property.

Function: ly:simple-closure? clos

  Type predicate.

Function: ly:skyline-pair? x

  Is x a `Skyline_pair` object?

Function: ly:skyline? x

  Is x a `Skyline` object?

Function: ly:smob-protects

  Return LilyPond’s internal smob protection list.

Function: ly:solve-spring-rod-problem springs rods length ragged

  Solve a spring and rod problem for count objects, that are connected by count-1 springs, and an arbitrary number of rods. count is implicitly given by springs and rods. The springs argument has the format `(ideal, inverse_hook)` and rods is of the form `(idx1, idx2, distance)`.

  length is a number, ragged a boolean.

  The function returns a list containing the force (positive for stretching, negative for compressing and `#f` for non-satisfied constraints) followed by spring-count+1 positions of the objects.

Function: ly:source-file? x

  Is x a `Source_file` object?

Function: ly:spanner-bound spanner dir

  Get one of the bounds of spanner. dir is `-1` for left, and `1` for right.

Function: ly:spanner-broken-into spanner

  Return broken-into list for spanner.

Function: ly:spanner? g

  Is g a spanner object?

Function: ly:staff-symbol-line-thickness grob

  Returns the line-thickness of the staff associated with grob.

Function: ly:start-environment

  Return the environment (a list of strings) that was in effect at program start.

Function: ly:stderr-redirect file-name mode

  Redirect stderr to file-name, opened with mode.

Function: ly:stencil-add args

  Combine stencils. Takes any number of arguments.

Function: ly:stencil-aligned-to stil axis dir

  Align stil using its own extents. dir is a number. `-1` and `1` are left and right, respectively. Other values are interpolated (so `0` means the center).

Function: ly:stencil-combine-at-edge first axis direction second padding minimum

  Construct a stencil by putting second next to first. axis can be 0 (x-axis) or 1 (y-axis). direction can be -1 (left or down) or 1 (right or up). The stencils are juxtaposed with padding as extra space. If this puts the reference points closer than minimum, they are moved by the latter amount. first and second may also be `'()` or `#f`.

Function: ly:stencil-empty? stil

  Return whether stil is empty.

Function: ly:stencil-expr stil

  Return the expression of stil.

Function: ly:stencil-extent stil axis

  Return a pair of numbers signifying the extent of stil in axis direction (`0` or `1` for x and y axis, respectively).

Function: ly:stencil-fonts s

  Analyze s, and return a list of fonts used in s.

Function: ly:stencil-in-color stc r g b

  Put stc in a different color.

Function: ly:stencil-rotate stil angle x y

  Return a stencil stil rotated angle degrees around the relative offset (x, y). E.g. an offset of (-1, 1) will rotate the stencil around the left upper corner.

Function: ly:stencil-rotate-absolute stil angle x y

  Return a stencil stil rotated angle degrees around point (x, y), given in absolute coordinates.

Function: ly:stencil-translate stil offset

  Return a stil, but translated by offset (a pair of numbers).

Function: ly:stencil-translate-axis stil amount axis

  Return a copy of stil but translated by amount in axis direction.

Function: ly:stencil? x

  Is x a `Stencil` object?

Function: ly:stream-event? x

  Is x a `Stream_event` object?

Function: ly:string-substitute a b s

  Replace string a by string b in string s.

Function: ly:system-font-load name

  Load the OpenType system font ‘`name.otf`’. Fonts loaded with this command must contain three additional SFNT font tables called `LILC`, `LILF`, and `LILY`, needed for typesetting musical elements. Currently, only the Emmentaler and the Aybabtu fonts fulfill these requirements.

  Note that only `ly:font-get-glyph` and derived code (like `\lookup`) can access glyphs from the system fonts; text strings are handled exclusively via the Pango interface.

Function: ly:system-print system

  Draw the system and return the prob containing its stencil.

Function: ly:system-stretch system amount-scm

  Stretch the system vertically by the given amount. This must be called before the system is drawn (for example with `ly:system-print`).

Function: ly:text-dimension font text

  Given the font metric in font and the string text, compute the extents of that text in that font. The return value is a pair of number-pairs.

Function: ly:text-interface::interpret-markup

  Convert a text markup into a stencil. Takes three arguments, layout, props, and markup.

  layout is a `\layout` block; it may be obtained from a grob with `ly:grob-layout`. props is an alist chain, i.e. a list of alists. This is typically obtained with `(ly:grob-alist-chain grob (ly:output-def-lookup layout 'text-font-defaults))`. markup is the markup text to be processed.

Function: ly:translator-description me

  Return an alist of properties of translator me.

Function: ly:translator-group? x

  Is x a `Translator_group` object?

Function: ly:translator-name trans

  Return the type name of the translator object trans. The name is a symbol.

Function: ly:translator? x

  Is x a `Translator` object?

Function: ly:transpose-key-alist l pit

  Make a new key alist of l transposed by pitch pit.

Function: ly:truncate-list! lst i

  Take at most the first i of list lst.

Function: ly:ttf->pfa ttf-file-name idx

  Convert the contents of a TrueType font file to PostScript Type 42 font, returning it as a string. The optional idx argument is useful for TrueType collections (TTC) only; it specifies the font index within the TTC. The default value of idx is 0.

Function: ly:ttf-ps-name ttf-file-name idx

  Extract the PostScript name from a TrueType font. The optional idx argument is useful for TrueType collections (TTC) only; it specifies the font index within the TTC. The default value of idx is 0.

Function: ly:unit

  Return the unit used for lengths as a string.

Function: ly:usage

  Print usage message.

Function: ly:version

  Return the current lilypond version as a list, e.g., `(1 3 127 uu1)`.

Function: ly:warning str rest

  A Scheme callable function to issue the warning `str`. The message is formatted with `format` and `rest`.

Function: ly:wide-char->utf-8 wc

  Encode the Unicode codepoint wc, an integer, as UTF-8.

# C. Cheat sheet

Syntax | Description | Example
`1 2 8 16` | durations |
`c4. c4..` | augmentation dots |
`c d e f g a b` | scale |
`fis bes` | alteration |
`\clef treble \clef bass` | clefs |
`\time 3/4 \time 4/4` | time signature |
`r4 r8` | rest |
`d ~ d` | tie |
`\key es \major` | key signature |
note`'` | raise octave |
note`,` | lower octave |
`c( d e)` | slur |
`c\( c( d) e\)` | phrasing slur |
`a8[ b]` | beam |
`<< \new Staff ... >>` | more staves |
`c-> c-.` | articulations |
`c2\mf c\sfz` | dynamics |
`a\< a a\!` | crescendo |
`a\> a a\!` | decrescendo |
`< >` | chord |
`\partial 8` | upstep |
`\times 2/3 {f g a}` | triplets |
`\grace` | grace notes |
`\lyricmode { twinkle }` | entering lyrics | twinkle
`\new Lyrics` | printing lyrics |
`twin -- kle` | lyric hyphen |
`\chordmode { c:dim f:maj7 }` | chords |
`\context ChordNames` | printing chord names |
`<<{e f} \\ {c d}>>` | polyphony |
`s4 s8 s16` | spacer rests |

# D. LilyPond grammar

This appendix contains a description of the LilyPond grammar, as output from the parser.

    Grammar

        1 lilypond: /* empty */
        2         | lilypond toplevel_expression
        3         | lilypond assignment
        4         | lilypond error
        5         | lilypond "\\invalid"

        6 object_id_setting: "\\objectid" STRING

        7 toplevel_expression: lilypond_header
        8                    | book_block
        9                    | bookpart_block
       10                    | score_block
       11                    | composite_music
       12                    | full_markup
       13                    | full_markup_list
       14                    | output_def

       15 embedded_scm: SCM_TOKEN
       16             | SCM_IDENTIFIER

       17 lilypond_header_body: /* empty */
       18                     | lilypond_header_body assignment

       19 lilypond_header: "\\header" '{' lilypond_header_body '}'

       20 assignment_id: STRING
       21              | LYRICS_STRING

       22 assignment: assignment_id '=' identifier_init
       23           | embedded_scm

       24 identifier_init: score_block
       25                | book_block
       26                | bookpart_block
       27                | output_def
       28                | context_def_spec_block
       29                | music
       30                | post_event
       31                | number_expression
       32                | string
       33                | embedded_scm
       34                | full_markup
       35                | DIGIT

       36 context_def_spec_block: "\\context" '{' context_def_spec_body '}'

       37 context_def_spec_body: /* empty */
       38                      | CONTEXT_DEF_IDENTIFIER
       39                      | context_def_spec_body "\\grobdescriptions" embedded_scm
       40                      | context_def_spec_body context_mod

       41 book_block: "\\book" '{' book_body '}'

       42 book_body: /* empty */
       43          | BOOK_IDENTIFIER
       44          | book_body paper_block
       45          | book_body bookpart_block
       46          | book_body score_block
       47          | book_body composite_music
       48          | book_body full_markup
       49          | book_body full_markup_list
       50          | book_body lilypond_header
       51          | book_body error
       52          | book_body object_id_setting

       53 bookpart_block: "\\bookpart" '{' bookpart_body '}'

       54 bookpart_body: /* empty */
       55              | BOOK_IDENTIFIER
       56              | bookpart_body paper_block
       57              | bookpart_body score_block
       58              | bookpart_body composite_music
       59              | bookpart_body full_markup
       60              | bookpart_body full_markup_list
       61              | bookpart_body lilypond_header
       62              | bookpart_body error
       63              | bookpart_body object_id_setting

       64 score_block: "\\score" '{' score_body '}'

       65 score_body: music
       66           | SCORE_IDENTIFIER
       67           | score_body object_id_setting
       68           | score_body lilypond_header
       69           | score_body output_def
       70           | score_body error

       71 paper_block: output_def

       72 output_def: output_def_body '}'

       73 output_def_head: "\\paper"
       74                | "\\midi"
       75                | "\\layout"

       76 output_def_head_with_mode_switch: output_def_head

       77 output_def_body: output_def_head_with_mode_switch '{'
       78                | output_def_head_with_mode_switch '{' OUTPUT_DEF_IDENTIFIER
       79                | output_def_body assignment
       80                | output_def_body context_def_spec_block
       81                | output_def_body error

       82 tempo_event: "\\tempo" steno_duration '=' bare_unsigned
       83            | "\\tempo" string steno_duration '=' bare_unsigned
       84            | "\\tempo" full_markup steno_duration '=' bare_unsigned
       85            | "\\tempo" string
       86            | "\\tempo" full_markup

       87 music_list: /* empty */
       88           | music_list music
       89           | music_list embedded_scm
       90           | music_list error

       91 music: simple_music
       92      | composite_music

       93 alternative_music: /* empty */
       94                  | "\\alternative" '{' music_list '}'

       95 repeated_music: "\\repeat" simple_string unsigned_number music alternative_music

       96 sequential_music: "\\sequential" '{' music_list '}'
       97                 | '{' music_list '}'

       98 simultaneous_music: "\\simultaneous" '{' music_list '}'
       99                   | "<<" music_list ">>"

      100 simple_music: event_chord
      101             | MUSIC_IDENTIFIER
      102             | music_property_def
      103             | context_change

      104 optional_context_mod: /* empty */

      106 optional_context_mod: "\with"  '{' context_mod_list '}'

      107 context_mod_list: /* empty */
      108                 | context_mod_list context_mod

      109 composite_music: prefix_composite_music
      110                | grouped_music_list

      111 grouped_music_list: simultaneous_music
      112                   | sequential_music

      113 function_scm_argument: embedded_scm
      114                      | simple_string

      115 function_arglist_music_last: EXPECT_MUSIC function_arglist music

      116 function_arglist_nonmusic_last: EXPECT_MARKUP function_arglist full_markup
      117                               | EXPECT_SCM function_arglist function_scm_argument

      118 function_arglist_nonmusic: EXPECT_NO_MORE_ARGS
      119                          | EXPECT_MARKUP function_arglist_nonmusic full_markup
      120                          | EXPECT_SCM function_arglist_nonmusic function_scm_argument

      121 function_arglist: EXPECT_NO_MORE_ARGS
      122                 | function_arglist_music_last
      123                 | function_arglist_nonmusic_last

      124 generic_prefix_music_scm: MUSIC_FUNCTION function_arglist

      125 optional_id: /* empty */
      126            | '=' simple_string

      127 prefix_composite_music: generic_prefix_music_scm
      128                       | "\context" simple_string optional_id optional_context_mod music
      129                       | "\new" simple_string optional_id optional_context_mod music
      130                       | "\times" fraction music
      131                       | repeated_music
      132                       | "\transpose" pitch_also_in_chords pitch_also_in_chords music
      133                       | mode_changing_head grouped_music_list
      134                       | mode_changing_head_with_context optional_context_mod grouped_music_list
      135                       | relative_music
      136                       | re_rhythmed_music

      137 mode_changing_head: "\notemode"
      138                   | "\drummode"
      139                   | "\figuremode"
      140                   | "\chordmode"
      141                   | "\lyricmode"

      142 mode_changing_head_with_context: "\drums"
      143                                | "\figures"
      144                                | "\chords"
      145                                | "\lyrics"

      146 relative_music: "\relative" absolute_pitch music
      147               | "\relative" composite_music

      149 new_lyrics: "\addlyrics"  grouped_music_list

      151 new_lyrics: new_lyrics "\addlyrics"  grouped_music_list

      152 re_rhythmed_music: grouped_music_list new_lyrics

      154 re_rhythmed_music: "\lyricsto" simple_string  music

      155 context_change: "\change" STRING '=' STRING

      156 property_path_revved: embedded_scm
      157                     | property_path_revved embedded_scm

      158 property_path: property_path_revved

      159 property_operation: STRING '=' scalar
      160                   | "\unset" simple_string
      161                   | "\override" simple_string property_path '=' embedded_scm
      162                   | "\revert" simple_string embedded_scm

      163 context_def_mod: "\consists"
      164                | "\remove"
      165                | "\accepts"
      166                | "\defaultchild"
      167                | "\denies"
      168                | "\alias"
      169                | "\type"
      170                | "\description"
      171                | "\name"

      172 context_mod: property_operation
      173            | context_def_mod STRING

      174 context_prop_spec: simple_string
      175                  | simple_string '.' simple_string

      176 simple_music_property_def: "\override" context_prop_spec property_path '=' scalar
      177                          | "\revert" context_prop_spec embedded_scm
      178                          | "\set" context_prop_spec '=' scalar
      179                          | "\unset" context_prop_spec

      180 music_property_def: simple_music_property_def
      181                   | "\once" simple_music_property_def

      182 string: STRING
      183       | STRING_IDENTIFIER
      184       | string '+' string

      185 simple_string: STRING
      186              | LYRICS_STRING
      187              | STRING_IDENTIFIER

      188 scalar: string
      189       | LYRICS_STRING
      190       | bare_number
      191       | embedded_scm
      192       | full_markup
      193       | DIGIT

      194 event_chord: simple_chord_elements post_events
      195            | MULTI_MEASURE_REST optional_notemode_duration post_events
      196            | command_element
      197            | note_chord_element

      198 note_chord_element: chord_body optional_notemode_duration post_events

      199 chord_body: "<" chord_body_elements ">"

      200 chord_body_elements: /* empty */
      201                    | chord_body_elements chord_body_element

      202 chord_body_element: pitch exclamations questions octave_check post_events
      203                   | DRUM_PITCH post_events
      204                   | music_function_chord_body

      205 music_function_identifier_musicless_prefix: MUSIC_FUNCTION

      206 music_function_chord_body: music_function_identifier_musicless_prefix EXPECT_MUSIC function_arglist_nonmusic chord_body_element
      207                          | music_function_identifier_musicless_prefix function_arglist_nonmusic

      208 music_function_event: music_function_identifier_musicless_prefix EXPECT_MUSIC function_arglist_nonmusic post_event
      209                     | music_function_identifier_musicless_prefix function_arglist_nonmusic

      210 command_element: command_event
      211                | "\skip" duration_length
      212                | "\["
      213                | "\]"
      214                | "\"
      215                | '|'
      216                | "\partial" duration_length
      217                | "\time" fraction
      218                | "\mark" scalar

      219 command_event: "\~"
      220              | "\mark" "\default"
      221              | tempo_event
      222              | "\key" "\default"
      223              | "\key" NOTENAME_PITCH SCM_IDENTIFIER

      224 post_events: /* empty */
      225            | post_events post_event

      226 post_event: direction_less_event
      227           | '-' music_function_event
      228           | "--"
      229           | "__"
      230           | script_dir direction_reqd_event
      231           | script_dir direction_less_event
      232           | string_number_event

      233 string_number_event: E_UNSIGNED

      234 direction_less_char: '['
      235                    | ']'
      236                    | '~'
      237                    | '('
      238                    | ')'
      239                    | "\!"
      240                    | "\("
      241                    | "\)"
      242                    | "\>"
      243                    | "\<"

      244 direction_less_event: direction_less_char
      245                     | EVENT_IDENTIFIER
      246                     | tremolo_type

      247 direction_reqd_event: gen_text_def
      248                     | script_abbreviation

      249 octave_check: /* empty */
      250             | '='
      251             | '=' sub_quotes
      252             | '=' sup_quotes

      253 sup_quotes: '''
      254           | sup_quotes '''

      255 sub_quotes: ','
      256           | sub_quotes ','

      257 steno_pitch: NOTENAME_PITCH
      258            | NOTENAME_PITCH sup_quotes
      259            | NOTENAME_PITCH sub_quotes

      260 steno_tonic_pitch: TONICNAME_PITCH
      261                  | TONICNAME_PITCH sup_quotes
      262                  | TONICNAME_PITCH sub_quotes

      263 pitch: steno_pitch

      264 pitch_also_in_chords: pitch
      265                     | steno_tonic_pitch

      266 gen_text_def: full_markup
      267             | string
      268             | DIGIT

      269 script_abbreviation: '^'
      270                    | '+'
      271                    | '-'
      272                    | '|'
      273                    | ">"
      274                    | '.'
      275                    | '_'

      276 script_dir: '_'
      277           | '^'
      278           | '-'

      279 absolute_pitch: steno_pitch

      280 duration_length: multiplied_duration

      281 optional_notemode_duration: /* empty */
      282                           | multiplied_duration

      283 steno_duration: bare_unsigned dots
      284               | DURATION_IDENTIFIER dots

      285 multiplied_duration: steno_duration
      286                    | multiplied_duration '*' bare_unsigned
      287                    | multiplied_duration '*' FRACTION

      288 fraction: FRACTION
      289         | UNSIGNED '/' UNSIGNED

      290 dots: /* empty */
      291     | dots '.'

      292 tremolo_type: ':'
      293             | ':' bare_unsigned

      294 bass_number: DIGIT
      295            | UNSIGNED
      296            | STRING
      297            | full_markup

      298 figured_bass_alteration: '-'
      299                        | '+'
      300                        | '!'

      301 bass_figure: "_"
      302            | bass_number
      303            | bass_figure ']'
      304            | bass_figure figured_bass_alteration
      305            | bass_figure figured_bass_modification

      306 figured_bass_modification: "\+"
      307                          | "\!"
      308                          | '/'
      309                          | "\"

      310 br_bass_figure: bass_figure
      311               | '[' bass_figure

      312 figure_list: /* empty */
      313            | figure_list br_bass_figure

      314 figure_spec: FIGURE_OPEN figure_list FIGURE_CLOSE

      315 optional_rest: /* empty */
      316              | "\rest"

      317 simple_element: pitch exclamations questions octave_check optional_notemode_duration optional_rest
      318               | DRUM_PITCH optional_notemode_duration
      319               | RESTNAME optional_notemode_duration
      320               | lyric_element optional_notemode_duration

      321 simple_chord_elements: simple_element
      322                      | new_chord
      323                      | figure_spec optional_notemode_duration

      324 lyric_element: lyric_markup
      325              | LYRICS_STRING

      326 new_chord: steno_tonic_pitch optional_notemode_duration
      327          | steno_tonic_pitch optional_notemode_duration chord_separator chord_items

      328 chord_items: /* empty */
      329            | chord_items chord_item

      330 chord_separator: ":"
      331                | "^"
      332                | "/" steno_tonic_pitch
      333                | "/+" steno_tonic_pitch

      334 chord_item: chord_separator
      335           | step_numbers
      336           | CHORD_MODIFIER

      337 step_numbers: step_number
      338             | step_numbers '.' step_number

      339 step_number: bare_unsigned
      340            | bare_unsigned '+'
      341            | bare_unsigned "-"

      342 number_expression: number_expression '+' number_term
      343                  | number_expression '-' number_term
      344                  | number_term

      345 number_term: number_factor
      346            | number_factor '*' number_factor
      347            | number_factor '/' number_factor

      348 number_factor: '-' number_factor
      349              | bare_number

      350 bare_number: UNSIGNED
      351            | REAL
      352            | NUMBER_IDENTIFIER
      353            | REAL NUMBER_IDENTIFIER
      354            | UNSIGNED NUMBER_IDENTIFIER

      355 bare_unsigned: UNSIGNED
      356              | DIGIT

      357 unsigned_number: bare_unsigned
      358                | NUMBER_IDENTIFIER

      359 exclamations: /* empty */
      360             | exclamations '!'

      361 questions: /* empty */
      362          | questions '?'

      363 lyric_markup: LYRIC_MARKUP_IDENTIFIER

      365 lyric_markup: LYRIC_MARKUP  markup_top

      367 full_markup_list: "\markuplines"  markup_list

      368 full_markup: MARKUP_IDENTIFIER

      370 full_markup: "\markup"  markup_top

      371 markup_top: markup_list
      372           | markup_head_1_list simple_markup
      373           | simple_markup

      374 markup_list: markup_composed_list
      375            | markup_braced_list
      376            | markup_command_list

      377 markup_composed_list: markup_head_1_list markup_braced_list

      378 markup_braced_list: '{' markup_braced_list_body '}'

      379 markup_braced_list_body: /* empty */
      380                        | markup_braced_list_body markup
      381                        | markup_braced_list_body markup_list

      382 markup_command_list: MARKUP_LIST_HEAD_EMPTY
      383                    | MARKUP_LIST_HEAD_LIST0 markup_list
      384                    | MARKUP_LIST_HEAD_SCM0 embedded_scm
      385                    | MARKUP_LIST_HEAD_SCM0_LIST1 embedded_scm markup_list
      386                    | MARKUP_LIST_HEAD_SCM0_SCM1_LIST2 embedded_scm embedded_scm markup_list

      387 markup_head_1_item: MARKUP_HEAD_MARKUP0
      388                   | MARKUP_HEAD_SCM0_MARKUP1 embedded_scm
      389                   | MARKUP_HEAD_SCM0_SCM1_MARKUP2 embedded_scm embedded_scm

      390 markup_head_1_list: markup_head_1_item
      391                   | markup_head_1_list markup_head_1_item

      392 simple_markup: STRING
      393              | MARKUP_IDENTIFIER
      394              | LYRIC_MARKUP_IDENTIFIER
      395              | STRING_IDENTIFIER

      397 simple_markup: "\score"  '{' score_body '}'
      398              | MARKUP_HEAD_SCM0 embedded_scm
      399              | MARKUP_HEAD_SCM0_SCM1_SCM2 embedded_scm embedded_scm embedded_scm
      400              | MARKUP_HEAD_SCM0_SCM1 embedded_scm embedded_scm
      401              | MARKUP_HEAD_SCM0_MARKUP1_MARKUP2 embedded_scm markup markup
      402              | MARKUP_HEAD_SCM0_SCM1_MARKUP2_MARKUP3 embedded_scm embedded_scm markup markup
      403              | MARKUP_HEAD_EMPTY
      404              | MARKUP_HEAD_LIST0 markup_list
      405              | MARKUP_HEAD_MARKUP0_MARKUP1 markup markup

      406 markup: markup_head_1_list simple_markup
      407       | simple_markup

    Terminals, with rules where they appear

    "-" (320) 341
    "--" (341) 228
    "/" (321) 332
    "/+" (317) 333
    ":" (319) 330
    "<" (322) 199
    "<<" (324) 99
    ">" (323) 199 273
    ">>" (325) 99
    "\!" (330) 239 307
    "\" (326) 214 309
    "\(" (332) 240
    "\)" (329) 241
    "\+" (335) 306
    "\<" (334) 243
    "\>" (327) 242
    "\[" (331) 212
    "\]" (333) 213
    "\accepts" (261) 165
    "\addlyrics" (259) 149 151
    "\alias" (262) 168
    "\alternative" (263) 94
    "\book" (264) 41
    "\bookpart" (265) 53
    "\C[haracter]" (328)
    "\change" (266) 155
    "\chordmode" (267) 140
    "\chords" (268) 144
    "\consists" (269) 163
    "\context" (270) 36 128
    "\default" (271) 220 222
    "\defaultchild" (272) 166
    "\denies" (273) 167
    "\description" (274) 170
    "\drummode" (275) 138
    "\drums" (276) 142
    "\figuremode" (277) 139
    "\figures" (278) 143
    "\grobdescriptions" (279) 39
    "\header" (280) 19
    "\invalid" (281) 5
    "\key" (282) 222 223
    "\layout" (283) 75
    "\lyricmode" (284) 141
    "\lyrics" (285) 145
    "\lyricsto" (286) 154
    "\mark" (287) 218 220
    "\markup" (288) 370
    "\markuplines" (289) 367
    "\midi" (290) 74
    "\name" (291) 171
    "\new" (316) 129
    "\notemode" (292) 137
    "\objectid" (293) 6
    "\octave" (294)
    "\once" (295) 181
    "\override" (296) 161 176
    "\paper" (297) 73
    "\partial" (298) 216
    "\relative" (299) 146 147
    "\remove" (300) 164
    "\repeat" (301) 95
    "\rest" (302) 316
    "\revert" (303) 162 177
    "\score" (304) 64 397
    "\sequential" (305) 96
    "\set" (306) 178
    "\simultaneous" (307) 98
    "\skip" (308) 211
    "\tempo" (309) 82 83 84 85 86
    "\time" (315) 217
    "\times" (310) 130
    "\transpose" (311) 132
    "\type" (312) 169
    "\unset" (313) 160 179
    "\with" (314) 106
    "\~" (336) 219
    "^" (318) 331
    "_" (340) 301
    "__" (337) 229
    $end (0) 0
    '!' (33) 300 360
    ''' (39) 253 254
    '(' (40) 237
    ')' (41) 238
    '*' (42) 286 287 346
    '+' (43) 184 270 299 340 342
    ',' (44) 255 256
    '-' (45) 227 271 278 298 343 348
    '.' (46) 175 274 291 338
    '/' (47) 289 308 347
    ':' (58) 292 293
    '=' (61) 22 82 83 84 126 155 159 161 176 178 250 251 252
    '?' (63) 362
    '[' (91) 234 311
    ']' (93) 235 303
    '^' (94) 269 277
    '_' (95) 275 276
    '{' (123) 19 36 41 53 64 77 78 94 96 97 98 106 378 397
    '|' (124) 215 272
    '}' (125) 19 36 41 53 64 72 94 96 97 98 106 378 397
    '~' (126) 236
    BOOK_IDENTIFIER (352) 43 55
    CHORD_MODIFIER (354) 336
    CHORDMODIFIER_PITCH (353)
    CHORDMODIFIERS (342)
    CONTEXT_DEF_IDENTIFIER (355) 38
    DIGIT (345) 35 193 268 294 356
    DRUM_PITCH (356) 203 318
    DURATION_IDENTIFIER (357) 284
    E_UNSIGNED (346) 233
    error (256) 4 51 62 70 81 90
    EVENT_IDENTIFIER (358) 245
    EXPECT_MARKUP (348) 116 119
    EXPECT_MUSIC (349) 115 206 208
    EXPECT_NO_MORE_ARGS (351) 118 121
    EXPECT_SCM (350) 117 120
    FIGURE_CLOSE (338) 314
    FIGURE_OPEN (339) 314
    FRACTION (359) 287 288
    LYRIC_MARKUP (343) 365
    LYRIC_MARKUP_IDENTIFIER (361) 363 394
    LYRICS_STRING (360) 21 186 189 325
    MARKUP_HEAD_EMPTY (362) 403
    MARKUP_HEAD_LIST0 (363) 404
    MARKUP_HEAD_MARKUP0 (364) 387
    MARKUP_HEAD_MARKUP0_MARKUP1 (365) 405
    MARKUP_HEAD_SCM0 (366) 398
    MARKUP_HEAD_SCM0_MARKUP1 (367) 388
    MARKUP_HEAD_SCM0_MARKUP1_MARKUP2 (371) 401
    MARKUP_HEAD_SCM0_SCM1 (368) 400
    MARKUP_HEAD_SCM0_SCM1_MARKUP2 (369) 389
    MARKUP_HEAD_SCM0_SCM1_MARKUP2_MARKUP3 (370) 402
    MARKUP_HEAD_SCM0_SCM1_SCM2 (372) 399
    MARKUP_IDENTIFIER (378) 368 393
    MARKUP_LIST_HEAD_EMPTY (373) 382
    MARKUP_LIST_HEAD_LIST0 (374) 383
    MARKUP_LIST_HEAD_SCM0 (375) 384
    MARKUP_LIST_HEAD_SCM0_LIST1 (376) 385
    MARKUP_LIST_HEAD_SCM0_SCM1_LIST2 (377) 386
    MULTI_MEASURE_REST (344) 195
    MUSIC_FUNCTION (379) 124 205
    MUSIC_IDENTIFIER (380) 101
    NOTENAME_PITCH (381) 223 257 258 259
    NUMBER_IDENTIFIER (382) 352 353 354 358
    OUTPUT_DEF_IDENTIFIER (383) 78
    PREC_BOT (260)
    PREC_TOP (258)
    REAL (384) 351 353
    RESTNAME (385) 319
    SCM_IDENTIFIER (386) 16 223
    SCM_TOKEN (387) 15
    SCORE_IDENTIFIER (388) 66
    STRING (389) 6 20 155 159 173 182 185 296 392
    STRING_IDENTIFIER (390) 183 187 395
    TONICNAME_PITCH (391) 260 261 262
    UNARY_MINUS (392)
    UNSIGNED (347) 289 295 350 354 355

    Nonterminals, with rules where they appear

    absolute_pitch (249)
        on left: 279, on right: 146
    alternative_music (185)
        on left: 93 94, on right: 95
    assignment (167)
        on left: 22 23, on right: 3 18 79
    assignment_id (166)
        on left: 20 21, on right: 22
    bare_number (277)
        on left: 350 351 352 353 354, on right: 190 349
    bare_unsigned (278)
        on left: 355 356, on right: 82 83 84 283 286 293 339 340 341 357
    bass_figure (259)
        on left: 301 302 303 304 305, on right: 303 304 305 310 311
    bass_number (257)
        on left: 294 295 296 297, on right: 302
    book_block (171)
        on left: 41, on right: 8 25
    book_body (172)
        on left: 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52, on right: 41 44 45 46
        47 48 49 50 51 52
    bookpart_block (173)
        on left: 53, on right: 9 26 45
    bookpart_body (174)
        on left: 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63, on right: 53 56 57 58 59
        60 61 62 63
    br_bass_figure (261)
        on left: 310 311, on right: 313
    chord_body (225)
        on left: 199, on right: 198
    chord_body_element (227)
        on left: 202 203 204, on right: 201 206
    chord_body_elements (226)
        on left: 200 201, on right: 199 201
    chord_item (271)
        on left: 334 335 336, on right: 329
    chord_items (269)
        on left: 328 329, on right: 327 329
    chord_separator (270)
        on left: 330 331 332 333, on right: 327 334
    command_element (231)
        on left: 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218, on right: 196
    command_event (232)
        on left: 219 220 221 222 223, on right: 210
    composite_music (193)
        on left: 109 110, on right: 11 47 58 92 147
    context_change (211)
        on left: 155, on right: 103
    context_def_mod (215)
        on left: 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171, on right: 173
    context_def_spec_block (169)
        on left: 36, on right: 28 80
    context_def_spec_body (170)
        on left: 37 38 39 40, on right: 36 39 40
    context_mod (216)
        on left: 172 173, on right: 40 108
    context_mod_list (192)
        on left: 107 108, on right: 106 108
    context_prop_spec (217)
        on left: 174 175, on right: 176 177 178 179
    direction_less_char (236)
        on left: 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243,
        on right: 244
    direction_less_event (237)
        on left: 244 245 246, on right: 226 231
    direction_reqd_event (238)
        on left: 247 248, on right: 230
    dots (255)
        on left: 290 291, on right: 283 284 291
    duration_length (250)
        on left: 280, on right: 211 216
    embedded_scm (163)
        on left: 15 16, on right: 23 33 39 89 113 156 157 161 162 177 191
        384 385 386 388 389 398 399 400 401 402
    event_chord (223)
        on left: 194 195 196 197, on right: 100
    exclamations (280)
        on left: 359 360, on right: 202 317 360
    figure_list (262)
        on left: 312 313, on right: 313 314
    figure_spec (263)
        on left: 314, on right: 323
    figured_bass_alteration (258)
        on left: 298 299 300, on right: 304
    figured_bass_modification (260)
        on left: 306 307 308 309, on right: 305
    fraction (254)
        on left: 288 289, on right: 130 217
    full_markup (286)
        on left: 368 370, on right: 12 34 48 59 84 86 116 119 192 266 297
    full_markup_list (284)
        on left: 367, on right: 13 49 60
    function_arglist (199)
        on left: 121 122 123, on right: 115 116 117 124
    function_arglist_music_last (196)
        on left: 115, on right: 122
    function_arglist_nonmusic (198)
        on left: 118 119 120, on right: 119 120 206 207 208 209
    function_arglist_nonmusic_last (197)
        on left: 116 117, on right: 123
    function_scm_argument (195)
        on left: 113 114, on right: 117 120
    gen_text_def (246)
        on left: 266 267 268, on right: 247
    generic_prefix_music_scm (200)
        on left: 124, on right: 127
    grouped_music_list (194)
        on left: 111 112, on right: 110 133 134 149 151 152
    identifier_init (168)
        on left: 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35, on right: 22
    lilypond (160)
        on left: 1 2 3 4 5, on right: 0 2 3 4 5
    lilypond_header (165)
        on left: 19, on right: 7 50 61 68
    lilypond_header_body (164)
        on left: 17 18, on right: 18 19
    lyric_element (267)
        on left: 324 325, on right: 320
    lyric_markup (282)
        on left: 363 365, on right: 324
    markup (298)
        on left: 406 407, on right: 380 401 402 405
    markup_braced_list (291)
        on left: 378, on right: 375 377
    markup_braced_list_body (292)
        on left: 379 380 381, on right: 378 380 381
    markup_command_list (293)
        on left: 382 383 384 385 386, on right: 376
    markup_composed_list (290)
        on left: 377, on right: 374
    markup_head_1_item (294)
        on left: 387 388 389, on right: 390 391
    markup_head_1_list (295)
        on left: 390 391, on right: 372 377 391 406
    markup_list (289)
        on left: 374 375 376, on right: 367 371 381 383 385 386 404
    markup_top (288)
        on left: 371 372 373, on right: 365 370
    mode_changing_head (203)
        on left: 137 138 139 140 141, on right: 133
    mode_changing_head_with_context (204)
        on left: 142 143 144 145, on right: 134
    multiplied_duration (253)
        on left: 285 286 287, on right: 280 282 286 287
    music (184)
        on left: 91 92, on right: 29 65 88 95 115 128 129 130 132 146 154
    music_function_chord_body (229)
        on left: 206 207, on right: 204
    music_function_event (230)
        on left: 208 209, on right: 227
    music_function_identifier_musicless_prefix (228)
        on left: 205, on right: 206 207 208 209
    music_list (183)
        on left: 87 88 89 90, on right: 88 89 90 94 96 97 98 99
    music_property_def (219)
        on left: 180 181, on right: 102
    new_chord (268)
        on left: 326 327, on right: 322
    new_lyrics (206)
        on left: 149 151, on right: 151 152
    note_chord_element (224)
        on left: 198, on right: 197
    number_expression (274)
        on left: 342 343 344, on right: 31 342 343
    number_factor (276)
        on left: 348 349, on right: 345 346 347 348
    number_term (275)
        on left: 345 346 347, on right: 342 343 344
    object_id_setting (161)
        on left: 6, on right: 52 63 67
    octave_check (239)
        on left: 249 250 251 252, on right: 202 317
    optional_context_mod (190)
        on left: 104 106, on right: 128 129 134
    optional_id (201)
        on left: 125 126, on right: 128 129
    optional_notemode_duration (251)
        on left: 281 282, on right: 195 198 317 318 319 320 323 326 327
    optional_rest (264)
        on left: 315 316, on right: 317
    output_def (178)
        on left: 72, on right: 14 27 69 71
    output_def_body (181)
        on left: 77 78 79 80 81, on right: 72 79 80 81
    output_def_head (179)
        on left: 73 74 75, on right: 76
    output_def_head_with_mode_switch (180)
        on left: 76, on right: 77 78
    paper_block (177)
        on left: 71, on right: 44 56
    pitch (244)
        on left: 263, on right: 202 264 317
    pitch_also_in_chords (245)
        on left: 264 265, on right: 132
    post_event (234)
        on left: 226 227 228 229 230 231 232, on right: 30 208 225
    post_events (233)
        on left: 224 225, on right: 194 195 198 202 203 225
    prefix_composite_music (202)
        on left: 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136,
        on right: 109
    property_operation (214)
        on left: 159 160 161 162, on right: 172
    property_path (213)
        on left: 158, on right: 161 176
    property_path_revved (212)
        on left: 156 157, on right: 157 158
    questions (281)
        on left: 361 362, on right: 202 317 362
    re_rhythmed_music (209)
        on left: 152 154, on right: 136
    relative_music (205)
        on left: 146 147, on right: 135
    repeated_music (186)
        on left: 95, on right: 131
    scalar (222)
        on left: 188 189 190 191 192 193, on right: 159 176 178 218
    score_block (175)
        on left: 64, on right: 10 24 46 57
    score_body (176)
        on left: 65 66 67 68 69 70, on right: 64 67 68 69 70 397
    script_abbreviation (247)
        on left: 269 270 271 272 273 274 275, on right: 248
    script_dir (248)
        on left: 276 277 278, on right: 230 231
    sequential_music (187)
        on left: 96 97, on right: 112
    simple_chord_elements (266)
        on left: 321 322 323, on right: 194
    simple_element (265)
        on left: 317 318 319 320, on right: 321
    simple_markup (296)
        on left: 392 393 394 395 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 405,
        on right: 372 373 406 407
    simple_music (189)
        on left: 100 101 102 103, on right: 91
    simple_music_property_def (218)
        on left: 176 177 178 179, on right: 180 181
    simple_string (221)
        on left: 185 186 187, on right: 95 114 126 128 129 154 160 161
        162 174 175
    simultaneous_music (188)
        on left: 98 99, on right: 111
    steno_duration (252)
        on left: 283 284, on right: 82 83 84 285
    steno_pitch (242)
        on left: 257 258 259, on right: 263 279
    steno_tonic_pitch (243)
        on left: 260 261 262, on right: 265 326 327 332 333
    step_number (273)
        on left: 339 340 341, on right: 337 338
    step_numbers (272)
        on left: 337 338, on right: 335 338
    string (220)
        on left: 182 183 184, on right: 32 83 85 184 188 267
    string_number_event (235)
        on left: 233, on right: 232
    sub_quotes (241)
        on left: 255 256, on right: 251 256 259 262
    sup_quotes (240)
        on left: 253 254, on right: 252 254 258 261
    tempo_event (182)
        on left: 82 83 84 85 86, on right: 221
    toplevel_expression (162)
        on left: 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14, on right: 2
    tremolo_type (256)
        on left: 292 293, on right: 246
    unsigned_number (279)
        on left: 357 358, on right: 95

# E. GNU Free Documentation License

Version 1.1, March 2000

    Copyright © 2000 Free Software Foundation, Inc.
    59 Temple Place, Suite 330, Boston, MA  02111-1307, USA

    Everyone is permitted to copy and distribute verbatim copies
    of this license document, but changing it is not allowed.

1. PREAMBLE

   The purpose of this License is to make a manual, textbook, or other written document free in the sense of freedom: to assure everyone the effective freedom to copy and redistribute it, with or without modifying it, either commercially or noncommercially. Secondarily, this License preserves for the author and publisher a way to get credit for their work, while not being considered responsible for modifications made by others.

   This License is a kind of ‘copyleft’, which means that derivative works of the document must themselves be free in the same sense. It complements the GNU General Public License, which is a copyleft license designed for free software.

   We have designed this License in order to use it for manuals for free software, because free software needs free documentation: a free program should come with manuals providing the same freedoms that the software does. But this License is not limited to software manuals; it can be used for any textual work, regardless of subject matter or whether it is published as a printed book. We recommend this License principally for works whose purpose is instruction or reference.

2. APPLICABILITY AND DEFINITIONS

   This License applies to any manual or other work that contains a notice placed by the copyright holder saying it can be distributed under the terms of this License. The ‘Document’, below, refers to any such manual or work. Any member of the public is a licensee, and is addressed as ‘you’.

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6. COMBINING DOCUMENTS

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7. COLLECTIONS OF DOCUMENTS

   You may make a collection consisting of the Document and other documents released under this License, and replace the individual copies of this License in the various documents with a single copy that is included in the collection, provided that you follow the rules of this License for verbatim copying of each of the documents in all other respects.

   You may extract a single document from such a collection, and distribute it individually under this License, provided you insert a copy of this License into the extracted document, and follow this License in all other respects regarding verbatim copying of that document.

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10. TERMINATION

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11. FUTURE REVISIONS OF THIS LICENSE

    The Free Software Foundation may publish new, revised versions of the GNU Free Documentation License from time to time. Such new versions will be similar in spirit to the present version, but may differ in detail to address new problems or concerns. See http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/.

    Each version of the License is given a distinguishing version number. If the Document specifies that a particular numbered version of this License ‘or any later version’ applies to it, you have the option of following the terms and conditions either of that specified version or of any later version that has been published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation. If the Document does not specify a version number of this License, you may choose any version ever published (not as a draft) by the Free Software Foundation.

### ADDENDUM: How to use this License for your documents

To use this License in a document you have written, include a copy of the License in the document and put the following copyright and license notices just after the title page:

      Copyright (C)  year  your name.
      Permission is granted to copy, distribute and/or modify this document
      under the terms of the GNU Free Documentation License, Version 1.1
      or any later version published by the Free Software Foundation;
      with the Invariant Sections being list their titles, with the
      Front-Cover Texts being list, and with the Back-Cover Texts being list.
      A copy of the license is included in the section entitled ‘GNU
      Free Documentation License’.

If you have no Invariant Sections, write ‘with no Invariant Sections’ instead of saying which ones are invariant. If you have no Front-Cover Texts, write ‘no Front-Cover Texts’ instead of ‘Front-Cover Texts being list’; likewise for Back-Cover Texts.

If your document contains nontrivial examples of program code, we recommend releasing these examples in parallel under your choice of free software license, such as the GNU General Public License, to permit their use in free software.

# F. LilyPond command index

This index lists all the LilyPond commands and keywords with links to those sections of the manual which describe or discuss their use. Each link is in two parts. The first part points to the exact location in the manual where the command or keyword appears; the second part points to the start of the section of the manual in which the command or keyword appears.

Jump to: | ! ' ( , - . / : < = > ? [ \ ] ^ _ | ~ A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X

| Index Entry | Section
! |  |
| `!` | Accidentals
' |  |
| `'` | Absolute octave entry
( |  |
| `(begin * * * *)` | Setting automatic beam behavior
| `(end * * * *)` | Setting automatic beam behavior
, |  |
| `,` | Absolute octave entry
- |  |
| `-` | Articulations and ornamentations
. |  |
| `.` | Durations
/ |  |
| `/` | Extended and altered chords
| `/+` | Extended and altered chords
: |  |
| `:` | Tremolo repeats
< |  |
| `<` | Chorded notes
| `<...>` | Chorded notes
= |  |
| `=` | Octave checks
> |  |
| `>` | Chorded notes
? |  |
| `?` | Accidentals
[ |  |
| `[` | Manual beams
\ |  |
| `\!` | Dynamics
| `\(` | Phrasing slurs
| `\)` | Phrasing slurs
| `\<` | Dynamics
| `\>` | Dynamics
| `\abs-fontsize` | B.8.1 Font
| `\accepts` | 5.1.5 Defining new contexts
| `\accepts` | 5.1.6 Aligning contexts
| `\addChordShape` | Predefined fret diagrams
| `\addInstrumentDefinition` | Instrument names
| `\addlyrics` | 2.1.3 Aligning lyrics to a melody
| `\addQuote` | Quoting other voices
| `\aeolian` | Key signature
| `\afterGrace` | Grace notes
| `\aikenHeads` | Shape note heads
| `\allowPageTurn` | Predefined commands
| `\alternative` | 1.4.1 Long repeats
| `\AncientRemoveEmptyStaffContext` | Hiding staves
| `\applyContext` | 6.5.1 Context evaluation
| `\applyOutput` | 6.5.2 Running a function on all layout objects
| `\arpeggio` | Arpeggio
| `\arpeggioArrowDown` | Arpeggio
| `\arpeggioArrowUp` | Arpeggio
| `\arpeggioBracket` | Arpeggio
| `\arpeggioNormal` | Arpeggio
| `\arpeggioParenthesis` | Arpeggio
| `\arrow-head` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\arrow-head` | B.8.3 Graphic
| `\ascendens` | Gregorian square neume ligatures
| `\ascendens` | Predefined commands
| `\auctum` | Gregorian square neume ligatures
| `\auctum` | Predefined commands
| `\augmentum` | Predefined commands
| `\autoBeamOff` | Automatic beams
| `\autoBeamOff` | Selected Snippets
| `\autoBeamOn` | Automatic beams
| `\autoBeamOn` | Selected Snippets
| `\autochange` | Changing staff automatically
| `\backslashed-digit` | B.8.6 Other
| `\balloonGrobText` | Balloon help
| `\balloonLengthOff` | Balloon help
| `\balloonLengthOn` | Balloon help
| `\balloonText` | Balloon help
| `\bar` | Bar lines
| `\bar` | Selected Snippets
| `\barNumberCheck` | Bar and bar number checks
| `\beam` | B.8.3 Graphic
| `\bendAfter` | Falls and doits
| `\bold` | Selecting font and font size
| `\bold` | B.8.1 Font
| `\book` | 3.1.2 Multiple scores in a book
| `\book` | 3.1.2 Multiple scores in a book
| `\book` | 3.1.3 File structure
| `\bookpart` | 3.1.2 Multiple scores in a book
| `\bookpart` | 3.1.3 File structure
| `\bookpart` | 4.3.2 Page breaking
| `\box` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\box` | B.8.1 Font
| `\bracket` | New dynamic marks
| `\bracket` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\bracket` | B.8.3 Graphic
| `\break` | Predefined commands
| `\breathe` | Breath marks
| `\breve` | Durations
| `\breve` | Rests
| `\cadenzaOff` | Unmetered music
| `\cadenzaOn` | Unmetered music
| `\caesura` | Predefined commands
| `\caps` | B.8.1 Font
| `\cavum` | Gregorian square neume ligatures
| `\cavum` | Predefined commands
| `\center-align` | Text alignment
| `\center-align` | B.8.2 Align
| `\center-column` | Text alignment
| `\center-column` | B.8.2 Align
| `\change` | Changing staff manually
| `\char` | B.8.6 Other
| `\chordmode` | See also
| `\chordmode` | See also
| `\chordmode` | Predefined fret diagrams
| `\circle` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\circle` | B.8.3 Graphic
| `\clef` | Clef
| `\cm` | 5.4.3 Distances and measurements
| `\column` | Text alignment
| `\column` | B.8.2 Align
| `\column-lines` | B.9 Text markup list commands
| `\combine` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\combine` | B.8.2 Align
| `\compressFullBarRests` | Full measure rests
| `\concat` | B.8.2 Align
| `\context` | 5.1.2 Creating contexts
| `\cr` | Dynamics
| `\crescHairpin` | Dynamics
| `\crescTextCresc` | Dynamics
| `\cueDuring` | Formatting cue notes
| `\decr` | Dynamics
| `\defaultTimeSignature` | Time signature
| `\deminutum` | Gregorian square neume ligatures
| `\deminutum` | Predefined commands
| `\denies` | 5.1.5 Defining new contexts
| `\denies` | 5.1.6 Aligning contexts
| `\descendens` | Gregorian square neume ligatures
| `\descendens` | Predefined commands
| `\dimHairpin` | Dynamics
| `\dimTextDecr` | Dynamics
| `\dimTextDecresc` | Dynamics
| `\dimTextDim` | Dynamics
| `\dir-column` | B.8.2 Align
| `\displayLilyMusic` | 3.3.4 Displaying LilyPond notation
| `\displayLilyMusic` | 6.3.2 Music properties
| `\displayMusic` | 6.3.1 Displaying music expressions
| `\divisioMaior` | Predefined commands
| `\divisioMaxima` | Predefined commands
| `\divisioMinima` | Predefined commands
| `\dorian` | Key signature
| `\dotsDown` | Durations
| `\dotsNeutral` | Durations
| `\dotsUp` | Durations
| `\doubleflat` | B.8.4 Music
| `\doublesharp` | B.8.4 Music
| `\downbow` | Bowing indications
| `\draw-circle` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\draw-circle` | B.8.3 Graphic
| `\draw-line` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\draw-line` | B.8.3 Graphic
| `\drummode` | Instantiating new staves
| `\dynamic` | New dynamic marks
| `\dynamic` | B.8.1 Font
| `\dynamicDown` | Dynamics
| `\dynamicNeutral` | Dynamics
| `\dynamicUp` | Dynamics
| `\easyHeadsOff` | Easy notation note heads
| `\easyHeadsOn` | Easy notation note heads
| `\epsfile` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\epsfile` | B.8.3 Graphic
| `\espressivo` | Dynamics
| `\expandFullBarRests` | Full measure rests
| `\f` | Dynamics
| `\featherDurations` | Feathered beams
| `\fermataMarkup` | Full measure rests
| `\ff` | Dynamics
| `\fff` | Dynamics
| `\ffff` | Dynamics
| `\fill-line` | Text alignment
| `\fill-line` | B.8.2 Align
| `\filled-box` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\filled-box` | B.8.3 Graphic
| `\finalis` | Predefined commands
| `\finger` | Fingering instructions
| `\finger` | B.8.1 Font
| `\flat` | B.8.4 Music
| `\flexa` | Predefined commands
| `\fontCaps` | B.8.1 Font
| `\fontsize` | Selecting font and font size
| `\fontsize` | B.8.1 Font
| `\fp` | Dynamics
| `\fraction` | B.8.6 Other
| `\frenchChords` | Predefined commands
| `\fret-diagram` | Fret diagram markups
| `\fret-diagram` | B.8.5 Instrument Specific Markup
| `\fret-diagram-terse` | Fret diagram markups
| `\fret-diagram-terse` | B.8.5 Instrument Specific Markup
| `\fret-diagram-verbose` | Fret diagram markups
| `\fret-diagram-verbose` | B.8.5 Instrument Specific Markup
| `\fromproperty` | B.8.6 Other
| `\general-align` | Text alignment
| `\general-align` | B.8.2 Align
| `\germanChords` | Predefined commands
| `\glissando` | Glissando
| `\grace` | Grace notes
| `\halign` | Text alignment
| `\halign` | B.8.2 Align
| `\harmonic` | Harmonics
| `\harp-pedal` | B.8.5 Instrument Specific Markup
| `\hbracket` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\hbracket` | B.8.3 Graphic
| `\hcenter-in` | B.8.2 Align
| `\header` | 3.1.3 File structure
| `\hideKeySignature` | Bagpipe definitions
| `\hideNotes` | Hidden notes
| `\hideStaffSwitch` | Staff-change lines
| `\hspace` | B.8.2 Align
| `\huge` | Selecting notation font size
| `\huge` | Predefined commands
| `\huge` | B.8.1 Font
| `\improvisationOff` | Improvisation
| `\improvisationOff` | Showing melody rhythms
| `\improvisationOn` | Improvisation
| `\improvisationOn` | Showing melody rhythms
| `\in` | 5.4.3 Distances and measurements
| `\inclinatum` | Gregorian square neume ligatures
| `\inclinatum` | Predefined commands
| `\include` | 3.3.1 Including LilyPond files
| `\instrumentSwitch` | Instrument names
| `\ionian` | Key signature
| `\italianChords` | Predefined commands
| `\italic` | Selecting font and font size
| `\italic` | B.8.1 Font
| `\justified-lines` | B.9 Text markup list commands
| `\justify` | Text alignment
| `\justify` | B.8.2 Align
| `\justify-field` | B.8.2 Align
| `\justify-string` | B.8.2 Align
| `\keepWithTag` | Using tags
| `\key` | Key signature
| `\key` | Shape note heads
| `\killCues` | Formatting cue notes
| `\label` | Predefined commands
| `\laissezVibrer` | Ties
| `\large` | Selecting notation font size
| `\large` | Predefined commands
| `\large` | B.8.1 Font
| `\larger` | Selecting font and font size
| `\larger` | Predefined commands
| `\larger` | B.8.1 Font
| `\layout` | 3.1.3 File structure
| `\layout` | 4.2.2 Score layout
| `\left-align` | Text alignment
| `\left-align` | B.8.2 Align
| `\left-column` | B.8.2 Align
| `\line` | B.8.2 Align
| `\linea` | Gregorian square neume ligatures
| `\linea` | Predefined commands
| `\locrian` | Key signature
| `\longa` | Durations
| `\longa` | Rests
| `\lookup` | B.8.6 Other
| `\lower` | Text alignment
| `\lower` | B.8.2 Align
| `\lydian` | Key signature
| `\lyricmode` | Lyrics explained
| `\lyricmode` | 2.1.3 Aligning lyrics to a melody
| `\lyricsto` | 2.1.3 Aligning lyrics to a melody
| `\magnify` | Selecting font and font size
| `\magnify` | B.8.1 Font
| `\major` | Key signature
| `\makeClusters` | Clusters
| `\mark` | Rehearsal marks
| `\mark` | Text marks
| `\markalphabet` | B.8.6 Other
| `\markletter` | B.8.6 Other
| `\markup` | Separate text
| `\markup` | Text markup introduction
| `\markuplines` | Predefined commands
| `\markuplines` | Predefined commands
| `\maxima` | Durations
| `\maxima` | Rests
| `\medium` | B.8.1 Font
| `\melisma` | Predefined commands
| `\melismaEnd` | Predefined commands
| `\mergeDifferentlyDottedOff` | Collision resolution
| `\mergeDifferentlyDottedOn` | Collision resolution
| `\mergeDifferentlyHeadedOff` | Collision resolution
| `\mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn` | Collision resolution
| `\mf` | Dynamics
| `\midi` | 3.1.3 File structure
| `\minor` | Key signature
| `\mixolydian` | Key signature
| `\mm` | 5.4.3 Distances and measurements
| `\mp` | Dynamics
| `\musicglyph` | Rehearsal marks
| `\musicglyph` | B.8.4 Music
| `\natural` | B.8.4 Music
| `\new` | 5.1.2 Creating contexts
| `\noBeam` | Manual beams
| `\noBreak` | Predefined commands
| `\noPageBreak` | Predefined commands
| `\noPageTurn` | Predefined commands
| `\normal-size-sub` | B.8.1 Font
| `\normal-size-super` | B.8.1 Font
| `\normal-text` | B.8.1 Font
| `\normalsize` | Selecting notation font size
| `\normalsize` | Predefined commands
| `\normalsize` | B.8.1 Font
| `\note` | B.8.4 Music
| `\note-by-number` | B.8.4 Music
| `\null` | B.8.6 Other
| `\number` | B.8.1 Font
| `\numericTimeSignature` | Time signature
| `\octaveCheck` | Octave checks
| `\on-the-fly` | B.8.6 Other
| `\oneVoice` | Single-staff polyphony
| `\open` | Bowing indications
| `\oriscus` | Gregorian square neume ligatures
| `\oriscus` | Predefined commands
| `\ottava` | Ottava brackets
| `\override` | 5.3.3 The `\override` command
| `\override` | B.8.6 Other
| `\override-lines` | B.9 Text markup list commands
| `\p` | Dynamics
| `\pad-around` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\pad-around` | B.8.2 Align
| `\pad-markup` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\pad-markup` | B.8.2 Align
| `\pad-to-box` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\pad-to-box` | B.8.2 Align
| `\pad-x` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\pad-x` | B.8.2 Align
| `\page-ref` | Predefined commands
| `\page-ref` | B.8.6 Other
| `\pageBreak` | Predefined commands
| `\pageTurn` | Predefined commands
| `\paper` | 3.1.3 File structure
| `\paper` | Vertical dimensions
| `\parallelMusic` | Writing music in parallel
| `\parenthesize` | Parentheses
| `\partcombine` | Automatic part combining
| `\partial` | Upbeats
| `\partial` | 1.4.1 Long repeats
| `\partial` | Normal repeats
| `\pes` | Predefined commands
| `\phrasingSlurDashed` | Phrasing slurs
| `\phrasingSlurDotted` | Phrasing slurs
| `\phrasingSlurDown` | Phrasing slurs
| `\phrasingSlurNeutral` | Phrasing slurs
| `\phrasingSlurSolid` | Phrasing slurs
| `\phrasingSlurUp` | Phrasing slurs
| `\phrygian` | Key signature
| `\pitchedTrill` | Trills
| `\postscript` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\postscript` | B.8.3 Graphic
| `\pp` | Dynamics
| `\ppp` | Dynamics
| `\pppp` | Dynamics
| `\ppppp` | Dynamics
| `\predefinedFretboardsOff` | Automatic fret diagrams
| `\predefinedFretboardsOn` | Automatic fret diagrams
| `\property in \lyricmode` | Lyrics explained
| `\pt` | 5.4.3 Distances and measurements
| `\put-adjacent` | B.8.2 Align
| `\quilisma` | Gregorian square neume ligatures
| `\quilisma` | Predefined commands
| `\quoteDuring` | Quoting other voices
| `\raise` | Text alignment
| `\raise` | B.8.2 Align
| `\relative` | Relative octave entry
| `\relative` | See also
| `\relative` | See also
| `\relative` | Changing staff automatically
| `\RemoveEmptyRhythmicStaffContext` | Hiding staves
| `\RemoveEmptyStaffContext` | Hiding staves
| `\RemoveEmptyStaffContext` | Hiding staves
| `\removeWithTag` | Using tags
| `\repeat` | 1.4.1 Long repeats
| `\repeat percent` | Percent repeats
| `\repeat tremolo` | Tremolo repeats
| `\repeatTie` | Ties
| `\repeatTie` | Normal repeats
| `\rest` | Rests
| `\rfz` | Dynamics
| `\right-align` | Text alignment
| `\right-align` | B.8.2 Align
| `\right-column` | B.8.2 Align
| `\rightHandFinger` | Right-hand fingerings
| `\roman` | B.8.1 Font
| `\rotate` | B.8.2 Align
| `\rounded-box` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\rounded-box` | B.8.3 Graphic
| `\sacredHarpHeads` | Shape note heads
| `\sans` | B.8.1 Font
| `\scaleDurations` | Scaling durations
| `\scaleDurations` | Polymetric notation
| `\score` | 3.1.1 Structure of a score
| `\score` | 3.1.3 File structure
| `\score` | B.8.4 Music
| `\semiflat` | B.8.4 Music
| `\semiGermanChords` | Predefined commands
| `\semisharp` | B.8.4 Music
| `\sesquiflat` | B.8.4 Music
| `\sesquisharp` | B.8.4 Music
| `\set` | Setting automatic beam behavior
| `\set` | 5.3.2 The `\set` command
| `\sf` | Dynamics
| `\sff` | Dynamics
| `\sfz` | Dynamics
| `\sharp` | B.8.4 Music
| `\shiftOff` | Collision resolution
| `\shiftOn` | Collision resolution
| `\shiftOnn` | Collision resolution
| `\shiftOnnn` | Collision resolution
| `\showKeySignature` | Bagpipe definitions
| `\showStaffSwitch` | Staff-change lines
| `\simple` | B.8.1 Font
| `\skip` | Invisible rests
| `\slashed-digit` | B.8.6 Other
| `\slurDashed` | Slurs
| `\slurDotted` | Slurs
| `\slurDown` | Slurs
| `\slurNeutral` | Slurs
| `\slurSolid` | Slurs
| `\slurUp` | Slurs
| `\small` | Selecting notation font size
| `\small` | Predefined commands
| `\small` | B.8.1 Font
| `\smallCaps` | B.8.1 Font
| `\smaller` | Selecting font and font size
| `\smaller` | Predefined commands
| `\smaller` | B.8.1 Font
| `\sostenutoOff` | Piano pedals
| `\sostenutoOn` | Piano pedals
| `\sp` | Dynamics
| `\spp` | Dynamics
| `\startGroup` | Analysis brackets
| `\startStaff` | Staff symbol
| `\startStaff` | Ossia staves
| `\startTrillSpan` | Trills
| `\stemDown` | Stems
| `\stemNeutral` | Stems
| `\stemUp` | Stems
| `\stencil` | B.8.6 Other
| `\stopGroup` | Analysis brackets
| `\stopStaff` | Staff symbol
| `\stopStaff` | Ossia staves
| `\stopTrillSpan` | Trills
| `\storePredefinedDiagram` | Predefined fret diagrams
| `\stropha` | Gregorian square neume ligatures
| `\stropha` | Predefined commands
| `\strut` | B.8.6 Other
| `\sub` | Selecting font and font size
| `\sub` | B.8.1 Font
| `\super` | Selecting font and font size
| `\super` | B.8.1 Font
| `\sustainOff` | Piano pedals
| `\sustainOn` | Piano pedals
| `\table-of-contents` | Predefined commands
| `\tag` | Using tags
| `\taor` | Bagpipe definitions
| `\teeny` | Selecting notation font size
| `\teeny` | Predefined commands
| `\teeny` | B.8.1 Font
| `\tempo` | Metronome marks
| `\text` | B.8.1 Font
| `\textLengthOff` | Predefined commands
| `\textLengthOn` | Predefined commands
| `\thumb` | Fingering instructions
| `\tied-lyric` | B.8.4 Music
| `\tieDashed` | Ties
| `\tieDotted` | Ties
| `\tieDown` | Ties
| `\tieNeutral` | Ties
| `\tieSolid` | Ties
| `\tieUp` | Ties
| `\time` | Time signature
| `\time` | Setting automatic beam behavior
| `\times` | Tuplets
| `\times` | Polymetric notation
| `\tiny` | Selecting notation font size
| `\tiny` | Predefined commands
| `\tiny` | B.8.1 Font
| `\tocItem` | Predefined commands
| `\translate` | Text alignment
| `\translate` | B.8.2 Align
| `\translate-scaled` | Text alignment
| `\translate-scaled` | B.8.2 Align
| `\transparent` | B.8.6 Other
| `\transpose` | See also
| `\transpose` | Transpose
| `\transpose` | See also
| `\transposedCueDuring` | Formatting cue notes
| `\transposition` | Instrument transpositions
| `\transposition` | Quoting other voices
| `\treCorde` | Piano pedals
| `\triangle` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\triangle` | B.8.3 Graphic
| `\trill` | Trills
| `\tupletDown` | Tuplets
| `\tupletNeutral` | Tuplets
| `\tupletUp` | Tuplets
| `\tweak` | 5.3.4 The `\tweak` command
| `\typewriter` | B.8.1 Font
| `\unaCorda` | Piano pedals
| `\underline` | Selecting font and font size
| `\underline` | B.8.1 Font
| `\unfoldRepeats` | 3.5.4 Repeats in MIDI
| `\unHideNotes` | Hidden notes
| `\unset` | 5.3.2 The `\set` command
| `\upbow` | Bowing indications
| `\upright` | B.8.1 Font
| `\vcenter` | B.8.2 Align
| `\verbatim-file` | B.8.6 Other
| `\virga` | Gregorian square neume ligatures
| `\virga` | Predefined commands
| `\virgula` | Predefined commands
| `\voiceFourStyle` | Voice styles
| `\voiceNeutralStyle` | Voice styles
| `\voiceOne` | Single-staff polyphony
| `\voiceOne ... \voiceFour` | Single-staff polyphony
| `\voiceOneStyle` | Voice styles
| `\voiceThreeStyle` | Voice styles
| `\voiceTwoStyle` | Voice styles
| `\whiteout` | B.8.6 Other
| `\with` | 5.1.3 Modifying context plug-ins
| `\with-color` | Coloring objects
| `\with-color` | B.8.6 Other
| `\with-dimensions` | B.8.6 Other
| `\with-url` | B.8.3 Graphic
| `\wordwrap` | Text alignment
| `\wordwrap` | B.8.2 Align
| `\wordwrap-field` | B.8.2 Align
| `\wordwrap-internal` | B.9 Text markup list commands
| `\wordwrap-lines` | B.9 Text markup list commands
| `\wordwrap-string` | B.8.2 Align
| `\wordwrap-string-internal` | B.9 Text markup list commands
] |  |
| `]` | Manual beams
^ |  |
| `^` | Extended and altered chords
_ |  |
| `_` | Lyrics explained
| `_` | Multiple syllables to one note
| `|` | Bar and bar number checks
| `|` | Bar and bar number checks
~ |  |
| `~` | Ties
A |  |
| `add ChordShape` | Predefined fret diagrams
| `addInstrumentDefinition` | Instrument names
| `addQuote` | Quoting other voices
| `aeolian` | Key signature
| `after-title-space` | Vertical dimensions
| `afterGrace` | Grace notes
| `aikenHeads` | Shape note heads
| `alignAboveContext` | 5.1.6 Aligning contexts
| `alignBelowContext` | 5.1.6 Aligning contexts
| `AncientRemoveEmptyStaffContext` | Hiding staves
| `annotate-spacing` | 4.6.1 Displaying spacing
| `arpeggio` | Arpeggio
| `arpeggioArrowDown` | Arpeggio
| `arpeggioArrowUp` | Arpeggio
| `arpeggioBracket` | Arpeggio
| `arpeggioNormal` | Arpeggio
| `arpeggioParenthesis` | Arpeggio
| `arranger` | 3.2.1 Creating titles
| `aug` | Common chords
| `auto-first-page-number` | Other layout variables
| `autoBeaming` | Setting automatic beam behavior
| `autoBeamOff` | Automatic beams
| `autoBeamOff` | Selected Snippets
| `autoBeamOn` | Automatic beams
| `autoBeamOn` | Selected Snippets
| `autoBeamSettings` | Setting automatic beam behavior
| `autochange` | Changing staff automatically
B |  |
| `balloonGrobText` | Balloon help
| `balloonLengthOff` | Balloon help
| `balloonLengthOn` | Balloon help
| `balloonText` | Balloon help
| `Balloon_engraver` | Balloon help
| `banjo-c-tuning` | Banjo tablatures
| `banjo-modal-tuning` | Banjo tablatures
| `banjo-open-d-tuning` | Banjo tablatures
| `banjo-open-dm-tuning` | Banjo tablatures
| `bar` | Bar lines
| `bar` | Selected Snippets
| `barCheckSynchronize` | Bar and bar number checks
| `barNumberCheck` | Bar and bar number checks
| `barNumberVisibility` | Selected Snippets
| `bartype` | Selected Snippets
| `base-shortest-duration` | 4.5.1 Horizontal spacing overview
| `beatGrouping` | Automatic beams
| `beatGrouping` | Setting automatic beam behavior
| `beatLength` | Automatic beams
| `beatLength` | Setting automatic beam behavior
| `before-title-space` | Vertical dimensions
| `bendAfter` | Falls and doits
| `between-system-padding` | Vertical dimensions
| `between-system-space` | Vertical dimensions
| `between-title-space` | Vertical dimensions
| `blank-last-page-force` | Other layout variables
| `blank-page-force` | Other layout variables
| `bookTitleMarkup` | 3.2.2 Custom titles
| `bottom-margin` | Vertical dimensions
| `bracket` | New dynamic marks
| `bracket` | Piano pedals
| `breakable` | Selected Snippets
| `breakbefore` | 3.2.1 Creating titles
| `breathe` | Breath marks
| `breve` | Durations
| `breve` | Rests
C |  |
| `cadenzaOff` | Unmetered music
| `cadenzaOn` | Unmetered music
| `change` | Changing staff manually
| `chordmode` | See also
| `chordmode` | See also
| `chordmode` | Predefined fret diagrams
| `chordNameExceptions` | Customizing chord names
| `ChordNames` | Predefined fret diagrams
| `chordNameSeparator` | Customizing chord names
| `chordNoteNamer` | Customizing chord names
| `chordPrefixSpacer` | Customizing chord names
| `chordRootNamer` | Customizing chord names
| `chords` | Printing chord names
| `clef` | Clef
| `color` | Coloring objects
| `common-shortest-duration` | 4.5.1 Horizontal spacing overview
| `Completion_heads_engraver` | Automatic note splitting
| `composer` | 3.2.1 Creating titles
| `compressFullBarRests` | Full measure rests
| `controlpitch` | Octave checks
| `copyright` | 3.2.1 Creating titles
| `cr` | Dynamics
| `crescHairpin` | Dynamics
| `crescTextCresc` | Dynamics
| `cross` | Special note heads
| `cross-staff` | Cross-staff stems
| `cueDuring` | Formatting cue notes
| `currentBarNumber` | Bar numbers
| `currentBarNumber` | Time administration
D |  |
| `decr` | Dynamics
| `dedication` | 3.2.1 Creating titles
| `default` | Automatic accidentals
| `default` | Automatic accidentals
| `defaultBarType` | Selected Snippets
| `defaultTimeSignature` | Time signature
| `dim` | Common chords
| `dimHairpin` | Dynamics
| `dimTextDecr` | Dynamics
| `dimTextDecresc` | Dynamics
| `dimTextDim` | Dynamics
| `dodecaphonic` | Automatic accidentals
| `dorian` | Key signature
| `dotsDown` | Durations
| `dotsNeutral` | Durations
| `dotsUp` | Durations
| `drummode` | Instantiating new staves
| `dynamic` | New dynamic marks
| `dynamicDown` | Dynamics
| `DynamicLineSpanner` | Dynamics
| `dynamicNeutral` | Dynamics
| `dynamicUp` | Dynamics
E |  |
| `easyHeadsOff` | Easy notation note heads
| `easyHeadsOn` | Easy notation note heads
| `espressivo` | Dynamics
| `evenFooterMarkup` | 3.2.2 Custom titles
| `evenHeaderMarkup` | 3.2.2 Custom titles
| `expandFullBarRests` | Full measure rests
F |  |
| `f` | Dynamics
| `featherDurations` | Feathered beams
| `fermataMarkup` | Full measure rests
| `ff` | Dynamics
| `fff` | Dynamics
| `ffff` | Dynamics
| `finger` | Fingering instructions
| `first-page-number` | Other layout variables
| `flag-style` | Cross-staff stems
| `followVoice` | Staff-change lines
| `font-interface` | Selecting notation font size
| `font-interface` | Fonts explained
| `font-size` | Selecting notation font size
| `font-size` | Selecting notation font size
| `fontSize` | Selecting notation font size
| `foot-separation` | Vertical dimensions
| `forget` | Automatic accidentals
| `four-string-banjo` | Banjo tablatures
| `fp` | Dynamics
| `fret-diagram` | Fret diagram markups
| `fret-diagram-interface` | Fret diagram markups
| `fret-diagram-terse` | Fret diagram markups
| `fret-diagram-verbose` | Fret diagram markups
| `FretBoards` | Predefined fret diagrams
G |  |
| `glissando` | Glissando
| `grace` | Grace notes
| `gridInterval` | Grid lines
| `Grid_line_span_engraver` | Grid lines
| `Grid_point_engraver` | Grid lines
| `grow-direction` | Feathered beams
H |  |
| `head-separation` | Vertical dimensions
| `hideKeySignature` | Bagpipe definitions
| `hideNotes` | Hidden notes
| `hideStaffSwitch` | Staff-change lines
| `horizontal-shift` | Horizontal dimensions
| `Horizontal_bracket_engraver` | Analysis brackets
| `huge` | Selecting notation font size
I |  |
| `improvisationOff` | Improvisation
| `improvisationOff` | Showing melody rhythms
| `improvisationOn` | Improvisation
| `improvisationOn` | Showing melody rhythms
| `indent` | Instrument names
| `indent` | Horizontal dimensions
| `indent` | 4.5.4 Line length
| `instrument` | 3.2.1 Creating titles
| `instrumentSwitch` | Instrument names
| `ionian` | Key signature
K |  |
| `key` | Key signature
| `key` | Shape note heads
| `killCues` | Formatting cue notes
L |  |
| `laissezVibrer` | Ties
| `large` | Selecting notation font size
| `layout file` | 4.2.1 Setting the staff size
| `left-margin` | Horizontal dimensions
| `length` | Cross-staff stems
| `line-width` | Horizontal dimensions
| `line-width` | 4.5.4 Line length
| `locrian` | Key signature
| `longa` | Durations
| `longa` | Rests
| `ly:minimal-breaking` | 4.3.5 Minimal page breaking
| `ly:optimal-breaking` | 4.3.3 Optimal page breaking
| `ly:page-turn-breaking` | 4.3.4 Optimal page turning
| `lydian` | Key signature
M |  |
| `m` | Common chords
| `magstep` | Selecting notation font size
| `magstep` | 5.4.3 Distances and measurements
| `maj` | Common chords
| `major` | Key signature
| `major seven symbols` | Predefined commands
| `majorSevenSymbol` | Customizing chord names
| `make-dynamic-script` | New dynamic marks
| `make-pango-font-tree` | Entire document fonts
| `makeClusters` | Clusters
| `mark` | Rehearsal marks
| `maxima` | Durations
| `maxima` | Rests
| `measureLength` | Automatic beams
| `measureLength` | Setting automatic beam behavior
| `measureLength` | Time administration
| `measurePosition` | Time administration
| `mergeDifferentlyDottedOff` | Collision resolution
| `mergeDifferentlyDottedOn` | Collision resolution
| `mergeDifferentlyHeadedOff` | Collision resolution
| `mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn` | Collision resolution
| `meter` | 3.2.1 Creating titles
| `mf` | Dynamics
| `minimumFret` | Default tablatures
| `minimumPageTurnLength` | 4.3.4 Optimal page turning
| `minimumRepeatLengthForPageTurn` | 4.3.4 Optimal page turning
| `minor` | Key signature
| `mixed` | Piano pedals
| `mixolydian` | Key signature
| `modern` | Automatic accidentals
| `modern-cautionary` | Automatic accidentals
| `modern-voice` | Automatic accidentals
| `modern-voice-cautionary` | Automatic accidentals
| `mp` | Dynamics
| `musicglyph` | Rehearsal marks
N |  |
| `neo-modern` | Automatic accidentals
| `neo-modern-cautionary` | Automatic accidentals
| `no-reset` | Automatic accidentals
| `noBeam` | Manual beams
| `normalsize` | Selecting notation font size
| `Note_heads_engraver` | Automatic note splitting
| `numericTimeSignature` | Time signature
O |  |
| `octaveCheck` | Octave checks
| `oddFooterMarkup` | 3.2.2 Custom titles
| `oddHeaderMarkup` | 3.2.2 Custom titles
| `oneVoice` | Single-staff polyphony
| `opus` | 3.2.1 Creating titles
| `ottava` | Ottava brackets
| `outside-staff-horizontal-padding` | 4.4.5 Vertical collision avoidance
| `outside-staff-padding` | 4.4.5 Vertical collision avoidance
| `outside-staff-priority` | 4.4.5 Vertical collision avoidance
P |  |
| `p` | Dynamics
| `page-breaking-between-system-padding` | Other layout variables
| `page-count` | Other layout variables
| `page-limit-inter-system-space` | Other layout variables
| `page-limit-inter-system-space-factor` | Other layout variables
| `page-spacing-weight` | Other layout variables
| `page-top-space` | Vertical dimensions
| `paper-height` | Vertical dimensions
| `paper-width` | Horizontal dimensions
| `parallelMusic` | Writing music in parallel
| `parenthesize` | Parentheses
| `partcombine` | Automatic part combining
| `partial` | Upbeats
| `pedalSustainStyle` | Piano pedals
| `percent` | Percent repeats
| `phrasingSlurDashed` | Phrasing slurs
| `phrasingSlurDotted` | Phrasing slurs
| `phrasingSlurDown` | Phrasing slurs
| `phrasingSlurNeutral` | Phrasing slurs
| `phrasingSlurSolid` | Phrasing slurs
| `phrasingSlurUp` | Phrasing slurs
| `phrygian` | Key signature
| `piano` | Automatic accidentals
| `piano-cautionary` | Automatic accidentals
| `PianoStaff` | References for keyboards
| `PianoStaff` | Changing staff automatically
| `piece` | 3.2.1 Creating titles
| `pipeSymbol` | Bar and bar number checks
| `pitchedTrill` | Trills
| `Pitch_squash_engraver` | Showing melody rhythms
| `poet` | 3.2.1 Creating titles
| `pp` | Dynamics
| `ppp` | Dynamics
| `pppp` | Dynamics
| `ppppp` | Dynamics
| `predefinedFretboardsOff` | Automatic fret diagrams
| `predefinedFretboardsOn` | Automatic fret diagrams
| `print-all-headers` | 3.2.1 Creating titles
| `print-all-headers` | Other layout variables
| `print-first-page-number` | Other layout variables
| `print-page-number` | Other layout variables
Q |  |
| `quotedEventTypes` | Selected Snippets
| `quoteDuring` | Quoting other voices
R |  |
| `r` | Rests
| `R` | Full measure rests
| `ragged-bottom` | Other layout variables
| `ragged-last` | Other layout variables
| `ragged-last` | 4.5.4 Line length
| `ragged-last-bottom` | Other layout variables
| `ragged-right` | Other layout variables
| `ragged-right` | 4.5.4 Line length
| `relative` | Relative octave entry
| `relative` | See also
| `relative` | See also
| `relative` | Changing staff automatically
| `RemoveEmptyRhythmicStaffContext` | Hiding staves
| `RemoveEmptyStaffContext` | Hiding staves
| `RemoveEmptyStaffContext` | Hiding staves
| `repeatCommands` | Manual repeat marks
| `repeatTie` | Ties
| `rest` | Rests
| `rfz` | Dynamics
| `rgb-color` | Coloring objects
| `rightHandFinger` | Right-hand fingerings
S |  |
| `s` | Invisible rests
| `sacredHarpHeads` | Shape note heads
| `scaleDurations` | Scaling durations
| `scaleDurations` | Polymetric notation
| `scoreTitleMarkup` | 3.2.2 Custom titles
| `set` | Setting automatic beam behavior
| `set-accidental-style` | Automatic accidentals
| `set-octavation` | Ottava brackets
| `sf` | Dynamics
| `sff` | Dynamics
| `sfz` | Dynamics
| `shiftOff` | Collision resolution
| `shiftOn` | Collision resolution
| `shiftOnn` | Collision resolution
| `shiftOnnn` | Collision resolution
| `short-indent` | Instrument names
| `short-indent` | Horizontal dimensions
| `show-available-fonts` | Single entry fonts
| `showFirstLength` | 3.4.2 Skipping corrected music
| `showKeySignature` | Bagpipe definitions
| `showLastLength` | 3.4.2 Skipping corrected music
| `showStaffSwitch` | Staff-change lines
| `skip` | Invisible rests
| `skipTypesetting` | 3.4.2 Skipping corrected music
| `slurDashed` | Slurs
| `slurDotted` | Slurs
| `slurDown` | Slurs
| `slurNeutral` | Slurs
| `slurSolid` | Slurs
| `slurUp` | Slurs
| `small` | Selecting notation font size
| `sostenutoOff` | Piano pedals
| `sostenutoOn` | Piano pedals
| `sp` | Dynamics
| `spacing` | 4.5.1 Horizontal spacing overview
| `spp` | Dynamics
| `staff-padding` | Known issues and warnings
| `Staff.midiInstrument` | Instrument names
| `start-repeat` | Manual repeat marks
| `startGroup` | Analysis brackets
| `startStaff` | Staff symbol
| `startStaff` | Ossia staves
| `startTrillSpan` | Trills
| `Stem` | Cross-staff stems
| `stem-spacing-correction` | 4.5.1 Horizontal spacing overview
| `stemDown` | Stems
| `stemLeftBeamCount` | Manual beams
| `stemNeutral` | Stems
| `stemRightBeamCount` | Manual beams
| `stemUp` | Stems
| `stopGroup` | Analysis brackets
| `stopStaff` | Staff symbol
| `stopStaff` | Ossia staves
| `stopTrillSpan` | Trills
| `storePredefinedDiagram` | Predefined fret diagrams
| `StringTunings` | Custom tablatures
| `stringTunings` | Predefined fret diagrams
| `subdivideBeams` | Selected Snippets
| `subsubtitle` | 3.2.1 Creating titles
| `subtitle` | 3.2.1 Creating titles
| `suggestAccidentals` | Annotational accidentals (musica ficta)
| `sus` | Extended and altered chords
| `sustainOff` | Piano pedals
| `sustainOn` | Piano pedals
| `system-count` | Other layout variables
| `system-separator-markup` | Other layout variables
T |  |
| `TabStaff` | Default tablatures
| `TabVoice` | Default tablatures
| `tagline` | 3.2.1 Creating titles
| `taor` | Bagpipe definitions
| `teaching` | Automatic accidentals
| `teeny` | Selecting notation font size
| `tempo` | Metronome marks
| `text` | Piano pedals
| `textSpannerDown` | Predefined commands
| `textSpannerNeutral` | Predefined commands
| `textSpannerUp` | Predefined commands
| `thumb` | Fingering instructions
| `tieDashed` | Ties
| `tieDotted` | Ties
| `tieDown` | Ties
| `tieNeutral` | Ties
| `tieSolid` | Ties
| `tieUp` | Ties
| `time` | Time signature
| `time` | Setting automatic beam behavior
| `times` | Tuplets
| `times` | Polymetric notation
| `timeSignatureFraction` | Polymetric notation
| `tiny` | Selecting notation font size
| `title` | 3.2.1 Creating titles
| `top-margin` | Vertical dimensions
| `transpose` | See also
| `transpose` | Transpose
| `transpose` | See also
| `transposedCueDuring` | Formatting cue notes
| `transposition` | Instrument transpositions
| `transposition` | Quoting other voices
| `treCorde` | Piano pedals
| `tremolo` | Tremolo repeats
| `tremoloFlags` | Tremolo repeats
| `trill` | Trills
| `tupletDown` | Tuplets
| `tupletNeutral` | Tuplets
| `TupletNumber` | Selected Snippets
| `tupletNumberFormatFunction` | Selected Snippets
| `tupletSpannerDuration` | Selected Snippets
| `tupletUp` | Tuplets
U |  |
| `unaCorda` | Piano pedals
| `unfold` | Written-out repeats
| `unHideNotes` | Hidden notes
V |  |
| `voice` | Automatic accidentals
| `Voice` | Single-staff polyphony
| `voice` | Automatic accidentals
| `voiceOne` | Single-staff polyphony
W |  |
| `whichBar` | Selected Snippets
| `with-color` | Coloring objects
X |  |
| `x11-color` | Coloring objects
| `x11-color` | See also

Jump to: | ! ' ( , - . / : < = > ? [ \ ] ^ _ | ~ A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X

# G. LilyPond index

In addition to all the LilyPond commands and keywords, this index lists musical terms and words which relate to each of them, with links to those sections of the manual which describe or discuss that topic. Each link is in two parts. The first part points to the exact location in the manual where the topic appears; the second part points to the start of the section of the manual where that topic is discussed.

Jump to: | ! ' ( , - . / 1 8 : < = > ? [ \ ] ^ _ | ~ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X

| Index Entry | Section
! |  |
| `!` | Accidentals
' |  |
| `'` | Absolute octave entry
( |  |
| `(begin * * * *)` | Setting automatic beam behavior
| `(end * * * *)` | Setting automatic beam behavior
, |  |
| `,` | Absolute octave entry
- |  |
| `-` | Articulations and ornamentations
. |  |
| `.` | Durations
/ |  |
| `/` | Extended and altered chords
| `/+` | Extended and altered chords
1 |  |
| 15ma | Ottava brackets
8 |  |
| 8va | Ottava brackets
| 8ve | Ottava brackets
: |  |
| `:` | Tremolo repeats
< |  |
| `<` | Chorded notes
| `<...>` | Chorded notes
= |  |
| `=` | Octave checks
> |  |
| `>` | Chorded notes
? |  |
| `?` | Accidentals
[ |  |
| `[` | Manual beams
\ |  |
| `\!` | Dynamics
| `\(` | Phrasing slurs
| `\)` | Phrasing slurs
| `\<` | Dynamics
| `\>` | Dynamics
| `\abs-fontsize` | B.8.1 Font
| `\accepts` | 5.1.5 Defining new contexts
| `\accepts` | 5.1.6 Aligning contexts
| `\addChordShape` | Predefined fret diagrams
| `\addInstrumentDefinition` | Instrument names
| `\addlyrics` | 2.1.3 Aligning lyrics to a melody
| `\addQuote` | Quoting other voices
| `\aeolian` | Key signature
| `\afterGrace` | Grace notes
| `\aikenHeads` | Shape note heads
| `\allowPageTurn` | Predefined commands
| `\alternative` | 1.4.1 Long repeats
| `\AncientRemoveEmptyStaffContext` | Hiding staves
| `\applyContext` | 6.5.1 Context evaluation
| `\applyOutput` | 6.5.2 Running a function on all layout objects
| `\arpeggio` | Arpeggio
| `\arpeggioArrowDown` | Arpeggio
| `\arpeggioArrowUp` | Arpeggio
| `\arpeggioBracket` | Arpeggio
| `\arpeggioNormal` | Arpeggio
| `\arpeggioParenthesis` | Arpeggio
| `\arrow-head` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\arrow-head` | B.8.3 Graphic
| `\ascendens` | Gregorian square neume ligatures
| `\ascendens` | Predefined commands
| `\auctum` | Gregorian square neume ligatures
| `\auctum` | Predefined commands
| `\augmentum` | Predefined commands
| `\autoBeamOff` | Automatic beams
| `\autoBeamOff` | Selected Snippets
| `\autoBeamOn` | Automatic beams
| `\autoBeamOn` | Selected Snippets
| `\autochange` | Changing staff automatically
| `\backslashed-digit` | B.8.6 Other
| `\balloonGrobText` | Balloon help
| `\balloonLengthOff` | Balloon help
| `\balloonLengthOn` | Balloon help
| `\balloonText` | Balloon help
| `\bar` | Bar lines
| `\bar` | Selected Snippets
| `\barNumberCheck` | Bar and bar number checks
| `\beam` | B.8.3 Graphic
| `\bendAfter` | Falls and doits
| `\bold` | Selecting font and font size
| `\bold` | B.8.1 Font
| `\book` | 3.1.2 Multiple scores in a book
| `\book` | 3.1.2 Multiple scores in a book
| `\book` | 3.1.3 File structure
| `\bookpart` | 3.1.2 Multiple scores in a book
| `\bookpart` | 3.1.3 File structure
| `\bookpart` | 4.3.2 Page breaking
| `\box` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\box` | B.8.1 Font
| `\bracket` | New dynamic marks
| `\bracket` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\bracket` | B.8.3 Graphic
| `\break` | Predefined commands
| `\breathe` | Breath marks
| `\breve` | Durations
| `\breve` | Rests
| `\cadenzaOff` | Unmetered music
| `\cadenzaOn` | Unmetered music
| `\caesura` | Predefined commands
| `\caps` | B.8.1 Font
| `\cavum` | Gregorian square neume ligatures
| `\cavum` | Predefined commands
| `\center-align` | Text alignment
| `\center-align` | B.8.2 Align
| `\center-column` | Text alignment
| `\center-column` | B.8.2 Align
| `\change` | Changing staff manually
| `\char` | B.8.6 Other
| `\chordmode` | See also
| `\chordmode` | See also
| `\chordmode` | Predefined fret diagrams
| `\circle` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\circle` | B.8.3 Graphic
| `\clef` | Clef
| `\cm` | 5.4.3 Distances and measurements
| `\column` | Text alignment
| `\column` | B.8.2 Align
| `\column-lines` | B.9 Text markup list commands
| `\combine` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\combine` | B.8.2 Align
| `\compressFullBarRests` | Full measure rests
| `\concat` | B.8.2 Align
| `\context` | 5.1.2 Creating contexts
| `\cr` | Dynamics
| `\crescHairpin` | Dynamics
| `\crescTextCresc` | Dynamics
| `\cueDuring` | Formatting cue notes
| `\decr` | Dynamics
| `\defaultTimeSignature` | Time signature
| `\deminutum` | Gregorian square neume ligatures
| `\deminutum` | Predefined commands
| `\denies` | 5.1.5 Defining new contexts
| `\denies` | 5.1.6 Aligning contexts
| `\descendens` | Gregorian square neume ligatures
| `\descendens` | Predefined commands
| `\dimHairpin` | Dynamics
| `\dimTextDecr` | Dynamics
| `\dimTextDecresc` | Dynamics
| `\dimTextDim` | Dynamics
| `\dir-column` | B.8.2 Align
| `\displayLilyMusic` | 3.3.4 Displaying LilyPond notation
| `\displayLilyMusic` | 6.3.2 Music properties
| `\displayMusic` | 6.3.1 Displaying music expressions
| `\divisioMaior` | Predefined commands
| `\divisioMaxima` | Predefined commands
| `\divisioMinima` | Predefined commands
| `\dorian` | Key signature
| `\dotsDown` | Durations
| `\dotsNeutral` | Durations
| `\dotsUp` | Durations
| `\doubleflat` | B.8.4 Music
| `\doublesharp` | B.8.4 Music
| `\downbow` | Bowing indications
| `\draw-circle` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\draw-circle` | B.8.3 Graphic
| `\draw-line` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\draw-line` | B.8.3 Graphic
| `\drummode` | Instantiating new staves
| `\dynamic` | New dynamic marks
| `\dynamic` | B.8.1 Font
| `\dynamicDown` | Dynamics
| `\dynamicNeutral` | Dynamics
| `\dynamicUp` | Dynamics
| `\easyHeadsOff` | Easy notation note heads
| `\easyHeadsOn` | Easy notation note heads
| `\epsfile` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\epsfile` | B.8.3 Graphic
| `\espressivo` | Dynamics
| `\expandFullBarRests` | Full measure rests
| `\f` | Dynamics
| `\featherDurations` | Feathered beams
| `\fermataMarkup` | Full measure rests
| `\ff` | Dynamics
| `\fff` | Dynamics
| `\ffff` | Dynamics
| `\fill-line` | Text alignment
| `\fill-line` | B.8.2 Align
| `\filled-box` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\filled-box` | B.8.3 Graphic
| `\finalis` | Predefined commands
| `\finger` | Fingering instructions
| `\finger` | B.8.1 Font
| `\flat` | B.8.4 Music
| `\flexa` | Predefined commands
| `\fontCaps` | B.8.1 Font
| `\fontsize` | Selecting font and font size
| `\fontsize` | B.8.1 Font
| `\fp` | Dynamics
| `\fraction` | B.8.6 Other
| `\frenchChords` | Predefined commands
| `\fret-diagram` | Fret diagram markups
| `\fret-diagram` | B.8.5 Instrument Specific Markup
| `\fret-diagram-terse` | Fret diagram markups
| `\fret-diagram-terse` | B.8.5 Instrument Specific Markup
| `\fret-diagram-verbose` | Fret diagram markups
| `\fret-diagram-verbose` | B.8.5 Instrument Specific Markup
| `\fromproperty` | B.8.6 Other
| `\general-align` | Text alignment
| `\general-align` | B.8.2 Align
| `\germanChords` | Predefined commands
| `\glissando` | Glissando
| `\grace` | Grace notes
| `\halign` | Text alignment
| `\halign` | B.8.2 Align
| `\harmonic` | Harmonics
| `\harp-pedal` | B.8.5 Instrument Specific Markup
| `\hbracket` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\hbracket` | B.8.3 Graphic
| `\hcenter-in` | B.8.2 Align
| `\header` | 3.1.3 File structure
| `\hideKeySignature` | Bagpipe definitions
| `\hideNotes` | Hidden notes
| `\hideStaffSwitch` | Staff-change lines
| `\hspace` | B.8.2 Align
| `\huge` | Selecting notation font size
| `\huge` | Predefined commands
| `\huge` | B.8.1 Font
| `\improvisationOff` | Improvisation
| `\improvisationOff` | Showing melody rhythms
| `\improvisationOn` | Improvisation
| `\improvisationOn` | Showing melody rhythms
| `\in` | 5.4.3 Distances and measurements
| `\inclinatum` | Gregorian square neume ligatures
| `\inclinatum` | Predefined commands
| `\include` | 3.3.1 Including LilyPond files
| `\instrumentSwitch` | Instrument names
| `\ionian` | Key signature
| `\italianChords` | Predefined commands
| `\italic` | Selecting font and font size
| `\italic` | B.8.1 Font
| `\justified-lines` | B.9 Text markup list commands
| `\justify` | Text alignment
| `\justify` | B.8.2 Align
| `\justify-field` | B.8.2 Align
| `\justify-string` | B.8.2 Align
| `\keepWithTag` | Using tags
| `\key` | Key signature
| `\key` | Shape note heads
| `\killCues` | Formatting cue notes
| `\label` | Predefined commands
| `\laissezVibrer` | Ties
| `\large` | Selecting notation font size
| `\large` | Predefined commands
| `\large` | B.8.1 Font
| `\larger` | Selecting font and font size
| `\larger` | Predefined commands
| `\larger` | B.8.1 Font
| `\layout` | 3.1.3 File structure
| `\layout` | 4.2.2 Score layout
| `\left-align` | Text alignment
| `\left-align` | B.8.2 Align
| `\left-column` | B.8.2 Align
| `\line` | B.8.2 Align
| `\linea` | Gregorian square neume ligatures
| `\linea` | Predefined commands
| `\locrian` | Key signature
| `\longa` | Durations
| `\longa` | Rests
| `\lookup` | B.8.6 Other
| `\lower` | Text alignment
| `\lower` | B.8.2 Align
| `\lydian` | Key signature
| `\lyricmode` | Lyrics explained
| `\lyricmode` | 2.1.3 Aligning lyrics to a melody
| `\lyricsto` | 2.1.3 Aligning lyrics to a melody
| `\magnify` | Selecting font and font size
| `\magnify` | B.8.1 Font
| `\major` | Key signature
| `\makeClusters` | Clusters
| `\mark` | Rehearsal marks
| `\mark` | Text marks
| `\markalphabet` | B.8.6 Other
| `\markletter` | B.8.6 Other
| `\markup` | Separate text
| `\markup` | Text markup introduction
| `\markuplines` | Predefined commands
| `\markuplines` | Predefined commands
| `\maxima` | Durations
| `\maxima` | Rests
| `\medium` | B.8.1 Font
| `\melisma` | Predefined commands
| `\melismaEnd` | Predefined commands
| `\mergeDifferentlyDottedOff` | Collision resolution
| `\mergeDifferentlyDottedOn` | Collision resolution
| `\mergeDifferentlyHeadedOff` | Collision resolution
| `\mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn` | Collision resolution
| `\mf` | Dynamics
| `\midi` | 3.1.3 File structure
| `\minor` | Key signature
| `\mixolydian` | Key signature
| `\mm` | 5.4.3 Distances and measurements
| `\mp` | Dynamics
| `\musicglyph` | Rehearsal marks
| `\musicglyph` | B.8.4 Music
| `\natural` | B.8.4 Music
| `\new` | 5.1.2 Creating contexts
| `\noBeam` | Manual beams
| `\noBreak` | Predefined commands
| `\noPageBreak` | Predefined commands
| `\noPageTurn` | Predefined commands
| `\normal-size-sub` | B.8.1 Font
| `\normal-size-super` | B.8.1 Font
| `\normal-text` | B.8.1 Font
| `\normalsize` | Selecting notation font size
| `\normalsize` | Predefined commands
| `\normalsize` | B.8.1 Font
| `\note` | B.8.4 Music
| `\note-by-number` | B.8.4 Music
| `\null` | B.8.6 Other
| `\number` | B.8.1 Font
| `\numericTimeSignature` | Time signature
| `\octaveCheck` | Octave checks
| `\on-the-fly` | B.8.6 Other
| \once | 5.3.2 The `\set` command
| `\oneVoice` | Single-staff polyphony
| `\open` | Bowing indications
| `\oriscus` | Gregorian square neume ligatures
| `\oriscus` | Predefined commands
| `\ottava` | Ottava brackets
| `\override` | 5.3.3 The `\override` command
| `\override` | B.8.6 Other
| `\override-lines` | B.9 Text markup list commands
| `\p` | Dynamics
| `\pad-around` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\pad-around` | B.8.2 Align
| `\pad-markup` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\pad-markup` | B.8.2 Align
| `\pad-to-box` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\pad-to-box` | B.8.2 Align
| `\pad-x` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\pad-x` | B.8.2 Align
| `\page-ref` | Predefined commands
| `\page-ref` | B.8.6 Other
| `\pageBreak` | Predefined commands
| `\pageTurn` | Predefined commands
| `\paper` | 3.1.3 File structure
| `\paper` | Vertical dimensions
| `\parallelMusic` | Writing music in parallel
| `\parenthesize` | Parentheses
| `\partcombine` | Automatic part combining
| `\partial` | Upbeats
| `\partial` | 1.4.1 Long repeats
| `\partial` | Normal repeats
| `\pes` | Predefined commands
| `\phrasingSlurDashed` | Phrasing slurs
| `\phrasingSlurDotted` | Phrasing slurs
| `\phrasingSlurDown` | Phrasing slurs
| `\phrasingSlurNeutral` | Phrasing slurs
| `\phrasingSlurSolid` | Phrasing slurs
| `\phrasingSlurUp` | Phrasing slurs
| `\phrygian` | Key signature
| `\pitchedTrill` | Trills
| `\postscript` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\postscript` | B.8.3 Graphic
| `\pp` | Dynamics
| `\ppp` | Dynamics
| `\pppp` | Dynamics
| `\ppppp` | Dynamics
| `\predefinedFretboardsOff` | Automatic fret diagrams
| `\predefinedFretboardsOn` | Automatic fret diagrams
| `\property in \lyricmode` | Lyrics explained
| `\pt` | 5.4.3 Distances and measurements
| `\put-adjacent` | B.8.2 Align
| `\quilisma` | Gregorian square neume ligatures
| `\quilisma` | Predefined commands
| `\quoteDuring` | Quoting other voices
| `\raise` | Text alignment
| `\raise` | B.8.2 Align
| `\relative` | Relative octave entry
| `\relative` | See also
| `\relative` | See also
| `\relative` | Changing staff automatically
| `\RemoveEmptyRhythmicStaffContext` | Hiding staves
| `\RemoveEmptyStaffContext` | Hiding staves
| `\RemoveEmptyStaffContext` | Hiding staves
| `\removeWithTag` | Using tags
| `\repeat` | 1.4.1 Long repeats
| `\repeat percent` | Percent repeats
| `\repeat tremolo` | Tremolo repeats
| `\repeatTie` | Ties
| `\repeatTie` | Normal repeats
| `\rest` | Rests
| `\rfz` | Dynamics
| `\right-align` | Text alignment
| `\right-align` | B.8.2 Align
| `\right-column` | B.8.2 Align
| `\rightHandFinger` | Right-hand fingerings
| `\roman` | B.8.1 Font
| `\rotate` | B.8.2 Align
| `\rounded-box` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\rounded-box` | B.8.3 Graphic
| `\sacredHarpHeads` | Shape note heads
| `\sans` | B.8.1 Font
| `\scaleDurations` | Scaling durations
| `\scaleDurations` | Polymetric notation
| `\score` | 3.1.1 Structure of a score
| `\score` | 3.1.3 File structure
| `\score` | B.8.4 Music
| `\semiflat` | B.8.4 Music
| `\semiGermanChords` | Predefined commands
| `\semisharp` | B.8.4 Music
| `\sesquiflat` | B.8.4 Music
| `\sesquisharp` | B.8.4 Music
| `\set` | Setting automatic beam behavior
| `\set` | 5.3.2 The `\set` command
| `\sf` | Dynamics
| `\sff` | Dynamics
| `\sfz` | Dynamics
| `\sharp` | B.8.4 Music
| `\shiftOff` | Collision resolution
| `\shiftOn` | Collision resolution
| `\shiftOnn` | Collision resolution
| `\shiftOnnn` | Collision resolution
| `\showKeySignature` | Bagpipe definitions
| `\showStaffSwitch` | Staff-change lines
| `\simple` | B.8.1 Font
| `\skip` | Invisible rests
| `\slashed-digit` | B.8.6 Other
| `\slurDashed` | Slurs
| `\slurDotted` | Slurs
| `\slurDown` | Slurs
| `\slurNeutral` | Slurs
| `\slurSolid` | Slurs
| `\slurUp` | Slurs
| `\small` | Selecting notation font size
| `\small` | Predefined commands
| `\small` | B.8.1 Font
| `\smallCaps` | B.8.1 Font
| `\smaller` | Selecting font and font size
| `\smaller` | Predefined commands
| `\smaller` | B.8.1 Font
| `\sostenutoOff` | Piano pedals
| `\sostenutoOn` | Piano pedals
| `\sp` | Dynamics
| `\spp` | Dynamics
| `\startGroup` | Analysis brackets
| `\startStaff` | Staff symbol
| `\startStaff` | Ossia staves
| `\startTrillSpan` | Trills
| `\stemDown` | Stems
| `\stemNeutral` | Stems
| `\stemUp` | Stems
| `\stencil` | B.8.6 Other
| `\stopGroup` | Analysis brackets
| `\stopStaff` | Staff symbol
| `\stopStaff` | Ossia staves
| `\stopTrillSpan` | Trills
| `\storePredefinedDiagram` | Predefined fret diagrams
| `\stropha` | Gregorian square neume ligatures
| `\stropha` | Predefined commands
| `\strut` | B.8.6 Other
| `\sub` | Selecting font and font size
| `\sub` | B.8.1 Font
| `\super` | Selecting font and font size
| `\super` | B.8.1 Font
| `\sustainOff` | Piano pedals
| `\sustainOn` | Piano pedals
| `\table-of-contents` | Predefined commands
| `\tag` | Using tags
| `\taor` | Bagpipe definitions
| `\teeny` | Selecting notation font size
| `\teeny` | Predefined commands
| `\teeny` | B.8.1 Font
| `\tempo` | Metronome marks
| `\text` | B.8.1 Font
| `\textLengthOff` | Predefined commands
| `\textLengthOn` | Predefined commands
| `\thumb` | Fingering instructions
| `\tied-lyric` | B.8.4 Music
| `\tieDashed` | Ties
| `\tieDotted` | Ties
| `\tieDown` | Ties
| `\tieNeutral` | Ties
| `\tieSolid` | Ties
| `\tieUp` | Ties
| `\time` | Time signature
| `\time` | Setting automatic beam behavior
| `\times` | Tuplets
| `\times` | Polymetric notation
| `\tiny` | Selecting notation font size
| `\tiny` | Predefined commands
| `\tiny` | B.8.1 Font
| `\tocItem` | Predefined commands
| `\translate` | Text alignment
| `\translate` | B.8.2 Align
| `\translate-scaled` | Text alignment
| `\translate-scaled` | B.8.2 Align
| `\transparent` | B.8.6 Other
| `\transpose` | See also
| `\transpose` | Transpose
| `\transpose` | See also
| `\transposedCueDuring` | Formatting cue notes
| `\transposition` | Instrument transpositions
| `\transposition` | Quoting other voices
| `\treCorde` | Piano pedals
| `\triangle` | Graphic notation inside markup
| `\triangle` | B.8.3 Graphic
| `\trill` | Trills
| `\tupletDown` | Tuplets
| `\tupletNeutral` | Tuplets
| `\tupletUp` | Tuplets
| `\tweak` | 5.3.4 The `\tweak` command
| `\typewriter` | B.8.1 Font
| `\unaCorda` | Piano pedals
| `\underline` | Selecting font and font size
| `\underline` | B.8.1 Font
| `\unfoldRepeats` | 3.5.4 Repeats in MIDI
| `\unHideNotes` | Hidden notes
| `\unset` | 5.3.2 The `\set` command
| `\upbow` | Bowing indications
| `\upright` | B.8.1 Font
| `\vcenter` | B.8.2 Align
| `\verbatim-file` | B.8.6 Other
| `\virga` | Gregorian square neume ligatures
| `\virga` | Predefined commands
| `\virgula` | Predefined commands
| `\voiceFourStyle` | Voice styles
| `\voiceNeutralStyle` | Voice styles
| `\voiceOne` | Single-staff polyphony
| `\voiceOne ... \voiceFour` | Single-staff polyphony
| `\voiceOneStyle` | Voice styles
| `\voiceThreeStyle` | Voice styles
| `\voiceTwoStyle` | Voice styles
| `\whiteout` | B.8.6 Other
| `\with` | 5.1.3 Modifying context plug-ins
| `\with-color` | Coloring objects
| `\with-color` | B.8.6 Other
| `\with-dimensions` | B.8.6 Other
| `\with-url` | B.8.3 Graphic
| `\wordwrap` | Text alignment
| `\wordwrap` | B.8.2 Align
| `\wordwrap-field` | B.8.2 Align
| `\wordwrap-internal` | B.9 Text markup list commands
| `\wordwrap-lines` | B.9 Text markup list commands
| `\wordwrap-string` | B.8.2 Align
| `\wordwrap-string-internal` | B.9 Text markup list commands
] |  |
| `]` | Manual beams
^ |  |
| `^` | Extended and altered chords
_ |  |
| `_` | Lyrics explained
| `_` | Multiple syllables to one note
| `|` | Bar and bar number checks
| `|` | Bar and bar number checks
~ |  |
| `~` | Ties
A |  |
| `a due` | See also
| a due part | Automatic part combining
| `About the documentation` | The music typesetter
| absolute | Absolute octave entry
| absolute dynamics | Dynamics
| absolute octave entry | Absolute octave entry
| absolute octave specification | Absolute octave entry
| `accent` | See also
| accent | B.10 List of articulations
| `acciaccatura` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `acciaccatura` | B.14 Identifiers
| `Accidental` | See also
| accidental | Accidentals
| `Accidental` | See also
| `Accidental` | Mensural accidentals and key signatures
| `Accidental` | Gregorian accidentals and key signatures
| accidental on tied note | Accidentals
| accidental style | Automatic accidentals
| accidental style, cautionary, modern voice | Automatic accidentals
| accidental style, default | Automatic accidentals
| accidental style, default | Automatic accidentals
| accidental style, forget | Automatic accidentals
| accidental style, modern | Automatic accidentals
| accidental style, modern | Automatic accidentals
| accidental style, modern voice cautionary | Automatic accidentals
| accidental style, modern-cautionary | Automatic accidentals
| accidental style, neo-modern | Automatic accidentals
| accidental style, neo-modern-cautionary | Automatic accidentals
| accidental style, no reset | Automatic accidentals
| accidental style, piano | Automatic accidentals
| accidental style, piano cautionary | Automatic accidentals
| accidental style, teaching | Automatic accidentals
| accidental style, voice | Automatic accidentals
| accidental style, voice, modern cautionary | Automatic accidentals
| accidental, cautionary | Accidentals
| accidental, forced for pitched trill | Trills
| Accidental, musica ficta | Annotational accidentals (musica ficta)
| accidental, parenthesized | Accidentals
| accidental, quarter-tone | See also
| accidental, reminder | Accidentals
| `accidental-interface` | See also
| `accidental-suggestion-interface` | See also
| `AccidentalCautionary` | See also
| `AccidentalPlacement` | See also
| accidentals | Automatic accidentals
| accidentals | Mensural accidentals and key signatures
| accidentals | Gregorian accidentals and key signatures
| `Accidentals and key signatures` | Accidentals
| `Accidentals and key signatures` | See also
| `Accidentals and key signatures` | Key signature
| `Accidentals and key signatures` | See also
| `Accidentals and key signatures` | See also
| accidentals and simultaneous notes | See also
| accidentals in chords | See also
| accidentals, automatic | Automatic accidentals
| accidentals, modern | Automatic accidentals
| accidentals, modern cautionary style | Automatic accidentals
| accidentals, modern style | Automatic accidentals
| accidentals, multivoice | Automatic accidentals
| accidentals, piano | Automatic accidentals
| accidentals, piano cautionary | Automatic accidentals
| `AccidentalSuggestion` | See also
| `AccidentalSuggestion` | See also
| `Accidental_engraver` | See also
| `Accidental_engraver` | See also
| `Accidental_engraver` | See also
| accordion | 2.2.3 Accordion
| accordion discant symbols | Discant symbols
| accordion shift symbols | Discant symbols
| accordion shifts | Discant symbols
| `add ChordShape` | Predefined fret diagrams
| `addChordShape` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `addChordShape` | B.14 Identifiers
| adding a white background to text | B.8.6 Other
| `Adding and removing engravers` | See also
| adding custom fret diagrams | Predefined fret diagrams
| `addInstrumentDefinition` | Instrument names
| `addInstrumentDefinition` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `addInstrumentDefinition` | B.14 Identifiers
| additions, in chords | Extended and altered chords
| `addQuote` | Quoting other voices
| `addQuote` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `addQuote` | B.14 Identifiers
| adjusting staff symbol | Staff symbol
| adjusting staff symbol | 5.4.4 Staff symbol properties
| `aeolian` | Key signature
| `after-title-space` | Vertical dimensions
| `afterGrace` | Grace notes
| `afterGrace` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `afterGrace` | B.14 Identifiers
| Aiken shape note heads | Shape note heads
| `aikenHeads` | Shape note heads
| `al niente` | See also
| align to objects | Using the `break-alignable-interface`
| `alignAboveContext` | 5.1.6 Aligning contexts
| `alignBelowContext` | 5.1.6 Aligning contexts
| aligning text | Text alignment
| aligning to cadenza | Aligning to cadenzas
| `All layout objects` | See also
| `All layout objects` | See also
| `allowPageTurn` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `allowPageTurn` | B.14 Identifiers
| altered chords | Extended and altered chords
| alternate ending in written-out repeats | Written-out repeats
| alternate endings | 1.4.1 Long repeats
| alternative endings with ties | Normal repeats
| alto clef | Clef
| Amazing Grace bagpipe example | Bagpipe example
| `Ambitus` | See also
| `ambitus` | See also
| `ambitus-interface` | See also
| `AmbitusAccidental` | See also
| `AmbitusLine` | See also
| `AmbitusNoteHead` | See also
| `Ambitus_engraver` | See also
| amount of staff lines | Staff symbol
| anacrucis in a repeat | Normal repeats
| `anacrusis` | See also
| analysis, musicological | Analysis brackets
| ancient clef | Clef
| `AncientRemoveEmptyStaffContext` | Hiding staves
| angle brackets | Chorded notes
| angled hairpins | Rotating layout objects
| `annotate-spacing` | 4.6.1 Displaying spacing
| `applyContext` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `applyContext` | B.14 Identifiers
| `applyMusic` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `applyMusic` | B.14 Identifiers
| `applyOutput` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `applyOutput` | B.14 Identifiers
| `appoggiatura` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `appoggiatura` | B.14 Identifiers
| Arabic key signatures | Arabic key signatures
| Arabic music | References for Arabic music
| Arabic music example | Arabic music example
| Arabic music template | Arabic music example
| Arabic note names | Arabic note names
| Arabic semi-flat symbol | Arabic note names
| Arabic time signatures | Arabic time signatures
| `arpeggio` | Arpeggio
| `Arpeggio` | See also
| arpeggio symbols, special | Arpeggio
| arpeggio, cross-staff parenthesis-style | Known issues and warnings
| arpeggio, parenthesis-style, cross-staff | Known issues and warnings
| `arpeggioArrowDown` | Arpeggio
| `arpeggioArrowUp` | Arpeggio
| `arpeggioBracket` | Arpeggio
| `arpeggioNormal` | Arpeggio
| `arpeggioParenthesis` | Arpeggio
| `arranger` | 3.2.1 Creating titles
| `Articulation and dynamics` | See also
| articulation-event | Selected Snippets
| articulations | Articulations and ornamentations
| articulations | Gregorian articulation signs
| artificial harmonics | Harmonics
| `assertBeamQuant` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `assertBeamQuant` | B.14 Identifiers
| `assertBeamSlope` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `assertBeamSlope` | B.14 Identifiers
| `aug` | Common chords
| `auto-first-page-number` | Other layout variables
| autobeam | Setting automatic beam behavior
| `autoBeaming` | Setting automatic beam behavior
| `autoBeamOff` | Automatic beams
| `autoBeamOff` | Selected Snippets
| `autoBeamOn` | Automatic beams
| `autoBeamOn` | Selected Snippets
| `autoBeamSettings` | Setting automatic beam behavior
| `autochange` | Changing staff automatically
| `autochange` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `autochange` | B.14 Identifiers
| autochange and relative music | Changing staff automatically
| `AutoChangeMusic` | See also
| automatic accidentals | Automatic accidentals
| automatic beam generation | Setting automatic beam behavior
| automatic beams, tuning | Setting automatic beam behavior
| automatic chord diagrams | Automatic fret diagrams
| automatic fret diagrams | Automatic fret diagrams
| automatic part combining | Automatic part combining
| automatic staff changes | Changing staff automatically
| automatic syllable durations | Automatic syllable durations
| automaticBars | Special considerations
| `Axis_group_engraver` | See also
B |  |
| `Backend` | 5.2.1 Navigating the program reference
| `Backend` | See also
| backslashed digits | B.8.6 Other
| bagpipe | Bagpipe definitions
| bagpipe example | Bagpipe example
| balloon | Balloon help
| balloon help | Balloon help
| `balloon-interface` | See also
| `balloonGrobText` | Balloon help
| `balloonGrobText` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `balloonGrobText` | B.14 Identifiers
| `balloonLengthOff` | Balloon help
| `balloonLengthOn` | Balloon help
| `balloonText` | Balloon help
| `balloonText` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `balloonText` | B.14 Identifiers
| `BalloonTextItem` | See also
| `Balloon_engraver` | Balloon help
| banjo tablature | 2.4 Fretted string instruments
| banjo tablatures | Banjo tablatures
| banjo tunings | Banjo tablatures
| `banjo-c-tuning` | Banjo tablatures
| `banjo-modal-tuning` | Banjo tablatures
| `banjo-open-d-tuning` | Banjo tablatures
| `banjo-open-dm-tuning` | Banjo tablatures
| `bar` | Bar lines
| `bar` | Selected Snippets
| `bar` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `bar` | B.14 Identifiers
| bar check | Bar and bar number checks
| bar lines | Bar lines
| bar lines, invisible | Bar lines
| bar lines, manual | Bar lines
| bar lines, suppressing | Special considerations
| bar lines, symbols on | Text marks
| bar lines, turning off | Unmetered music
| bar number | Time administration
| bar number alignment | Selected Snippets
| bar number check | Bar and bar number checks
| bar number collision | See also
| bar number, format | Selected Snippets
| bar numbering, turning off | Unmetered music
| bar numbers | Bar numbers
| bar numbers, regular spacing | Selected Snippets
| `bar-line-interface` | B.12 All context properties
| `barCheckSynchronize` | Bar and bar number checks
| baritone clef | Clef
| `BarLine` | See also
| `BarNumber` | See also
| `BarNumber` | Known issues and warnings
| `barNumberCheck` | Bar and bar number checks
| `barNumberCheck` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `barNumberCheck` | B.14 Identifiers
| `barNumberVisibility` | Selected Snippets
| barre indications | Fret diagram markups
| `bartype` | Selected Snippets
| Bartók pizzicato | Snap (Bartók) pizzicato
| `Bar_engraver` | See also
| `base-shortest-duration` | 4.5.1 Horizontal spacing overview
| bass clef | Clef
| bass note, for chords | Extended and altered chords
| Bass, figured | Introduction to figured bass
| Bass, thorough | Introduction to figured bass
| `BassFigure` | See also
| `BassFigure` | See also
| `BassFigureAlignment` | See also
| `BassFigureAlignment` | See also
| `BassFigureBracket` | See also
| `BassFigureBracket` | See also
| `BassFigureContinuation` | See also
| `BassFigureContinuation` | See also
| `BassFigureLine` | See also
| `BassFigureLine` | See also
| Basso continuo | Introduction to figured bass
| `Beam` | See also
| `Beam` | See also
| `Beam` | See also
| beam, last in polyphonic voice | Predefined commands
| beam, last in score | Predefined commands
| beaming in polymetric meter | Polymetric notation
| beaming in polymetric music | Polymetric notation
| beams and line breaks | Selected Snippets
| beams, cross-staff | Changing staff manually
| beams, custom rules for | Automatic beams
| beams, feathered | Feathered beams
| beams, manual | Automatic beams
| beams, manual | Manual beams
| beams, setting rules for | Automatic beams
| `beatGrouping` | Automatic beams
| `beatGrouping` | Setting automatic beam behavior
| `beatLength` | Automatic beams
| `beatLength` | Setting automatic beam behavior
| beats per minute | Metronome marks
| beats, grouping | Selected Snippets
| `before-title-space` | Vertical dimensions
| beginners’ music | Easy notation note heads
| `bendAfter` | Falls and doits
| `bendAfter` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `bendAfter` | B.14 Identifiers
| `between-system-padding` | Vertical dimensions
| `between-system-space` | Vertical dimensions
| `between-title-space` | Vertical dimensions
| bisbiglando | References for harps
| `blank-last-page-force` | Other layout variables
| `blank-page-force` | Other layout variables
| `bookTitleMarkup` | 3.2.2 Custom titles
| `bottom-margin` | Vertical dimensions
| bowing indications | Bowing indications
| `brace` | See also
| brace, vertical | Grouping staves
| braces, nesting of | Nested staff groups
| braces, various sizes | Fonts explained
| `bracket` | New dynamic marks
| `bracket` | Piano pedals
| bracket, horizontal | Analysis brackets
| bracket, phrasing | Analysis brackets
| bracket, vertical | Grouping staves
| bracket, volta | Manual repeat marks
| brackets | Analysis brackets
| brackets, angle | Chorded notes
| brackets, nesting of | Nested staff groups
| break-align-symbols | Using the `break-alignable-interface`
| break-visibility | Using break-visibility
| `breakable` | Selected Snippets
| `breakbefore` | 3.2.1 Creating titles
| breaking lines | 4.3.1 Line breaking
| breaking pages | 4.5.4 Line length
| breath marks | Breath marks
| `breathe` | Breath marks
| `breathe` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `breathe` | B.14 Identifiers
| `BreathingSign` | See also
| `BreathingSign` | See also
| `breve` | Durations
| `breve` | Rests
| breve rest | Rests
| broken chord | Arpeggio
C |  |
| C clef | Clef
| `cadenza` | See also
| `cadenza` | See also
| cadenza, aligning to | Aligning to cadenzas
| `cadenzaOff` | Unmetered music
| `cadenzaOn` | Unmetered music
| `caesura` | See also
| calling code during interpreting | 6.5.1 Context evaluation
| calling code on layout objects | 6.5.2 Running a function on all layout objects
| cautionary accidental | Accidentals
| cautionary accidental style, piano | Automatic accidentals
| cautionary accidentals, piano | Automatic accidentals
| centered dynamics in piano music | Known issues and warnings
| centering a column of text | B.8.2 Align
| centering text on the page | Text alignment
| `change` | Changing staff manually
| changing direction of text columns | B.8.2 Align
| changing instrument names | Instrument names
| changing properties | 5.3.2 The `\set` command
| changing staff automatically | Changing staff automatically
| changing staff manually | Changing staff manually
| choir staff | Grouping staves
| `ChoirStaff` | See also
| `ChoirStaff` | See also
| choral score | Multiple notes to one syllable
| choral tenor clef | Clef
| `chord` | See also
| `chord` | See also
| `chord` | See also
| chord chords | 2.7.1 Chord mode
| chord diagrams | Fret diagram markups
| chord diagrams | Predefined fret diagrams
| chord diagrams, automatic | Automatic fret diagrams
| chord inversions | Extended and altered chords
| chord mode | Chord mode overview
| chord names | Chord mode overview
| chord names | Printing chord names
| Chord names in MIDI | Supported in MIDI
| chord names with fret diagrams | Predefined fret diagrams
| chord quality | Common chords
| chord shapes for fretted instruments | Predefined fret diagrams
| chord steps, altering | Extended and altered chords
| chord, broken | Arpeggio
| chord, modifying one note in | 5.3.4 The `\tweak` command
| `chordmode` | See also
| `chordmode` | See also
| `chordmode` | Predefined fret diagrams
| `ChordName` | See also
| `chordNameExceptions` | Customizing chord names
| `ChordNames` | Predefined fret diagrams
| `ChordNames` | See also
| `chordNameSeparator` | Customizing chord names
| `chordNoteNamer` | Customizing chord names
| `chordPrefixSpacer` | Customizing chord names
| `chordRootNamer` | Customizing chord names
| `chords` | Printing chord names
| chords | Printing chord names
| chords and relative octave entry | Relative octave entry
| chords and ties | Ties
| chords, accidentals in | See also
| chords, cross-staff | Cross-staff stems
| chords, fingering | Fingering instructions
| chords, jazz | Customizing chord names
| chords, splitting across staves with \autochange | Known issues and warnings
| `Chord_name_engraver` | See also
| `church mode` | See also
| church modes | Key signature
| church rest | Selected Snippets
| circling text | B.8.3 Graphic
| `Clef` | See also
| `clef` | Clef
| `clef` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `clef` | B.14 Identifiers
| clef, alto | Clef
| clef, ancient | Clef
| clef, baritone | Clef
| clef, bass | Clef
| clef, C | Clef
| clef, F | Clef
| clef, french | Clef
| clef, G | Clef
| clef, mezzosoprano | Clef
| clef, soprano | Clef
| clef, tenor | Clef
| clef, transposing | Clef
| clef, treble | Clef
| clef, varbaritone | Clef
| clef, violin | Clef
| clef, visibility following explicit change | Special considerations
| `clef-interface` | See also
| clefs | Mensural clefs
| clefs | Gregorian clefs
| clefs, visibility of octavation | Special considerations
| `Clef_engraver` | See also
| `cluster` | See also
| `ClusterSpanner` | See also
| `ClusterSpannerBeacon` | See also
| `Cluster_spanner_engraver` | See also
| coda | Rehearsal marks
| coda | Articulations and ornamentations
| coda | B.10 List of articulations
| coda on bar line | Text marks
| collision, bar number | See also
| collisions | Collision resolution
| `Collisions of objects` | See also
| `color` | Coloring objects
| color in chords | See also
| color, rgb | Coloring objects
| colored notes | Coloring objects
| colored notes in chords | See also
| colored objects | Coloring objects
| coloring notes | Coloring objects
| coloring objects | Coloring objects
| coloring objects | Painting objects white
| coloring text | B.8.6 Other
| coloring voices | Voice styles
| colors | Coloring objects
| Colors, list of | Normal colors
| columns, text | Text alignment
| `Combining notes into chords` | See also
| combining parts | Automatic part combining
| `common-shortest-duration` | 4.5.1 Horizontal spacing overview
| `Completion_heads_engraver` | Automatic note splitting
| `composer` | 3.2.1 Creating titles
| compound time signatures | Selected Snippets
| `compressFullBarRests` | Full measure rests
| compressing music | Scaling durations
| concatenating text | B.8.2 Align
| `concert pitch` | See also
| condensing rests | Known issues and warnings
| Context, creating | 5.1.2 Creating contexts
| `ContextChange` | See also
| `Contexts` | See also
| `Contexts` | 5.1.3 Modifying context plug-ins
| `Contexts and engravers` | Single-staff polyphony
| `Contexts and engravers` | See also
| contexts, nested | 5.1.6 Aligning contexts
| control pitch | Octave checks
| control points, tweaking | Known issues and warnings
| controlling general text alignment | B.8.2 Align
| `controlpitch` | Octave checks
| `copyright` | 3.2.1 Creating titles
| `cr` | Dynamics
| creating contexts | 5.1.2 Creating contexts
| creating empty text objects | B.8.6 Other
| creating horizontal spaces in text | B.8.2 Align
| creating text fractions | B.8.6 Other
| creating vertical spaces in text | B.8.6 Other
| `crescendo` | See also
| `crescHairpin` | Dynamics
| `crescTextCresc` | Dynamics
| `cross` | Special note heads
| cross note heads | Special note heads
| cross staff chords | Cross-staff stems
| cross staff line | Staff-change lines
| cross staff notes | Cross-staff stems
| cross staff stems | Cross-staff stems
| `cross-staff` | Cross-staff stems
| cross-staff beams | Changing staff manually
| cross-staff chords | Cross-staff stems
| cross-staff line | Staff-change lines
| cross-staff notes | Changing staff manually
| cross-staff notes | Cross-staff stems
| cross-staff parenthesis-style arpeggio | Known issues and warnings
| cross-staff stems | Cross-staff stems
| cross-staff tremolo | See also
| cue notes | Quoting other voices
| cue notes | Formatting cue notes
| cue notes, formatting | Formatting cue notes
| cue notes, removing | Formatting cue notes
| `cueDuring` | Formatting cue notes
| `cueDuring` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `cueDuring` | B.14 Identifiers
| cues | Quoting other voices
| cues | Formatting cue notes
| cues, formatting | Formatting cue notes
| `CueVoice` | See also
| `currentBarNumber` | Bar numbers
| `currentBarNumber` | Time administration
| custodes | Custodes
| custom fret diagrams | Fret diagram markups
| custom fret diagrams, adding | Predefined fret diagrams
| custom rehearsal mark | Rehearsal marks
| customized fret diagram | Fret diagram markups
| customizing chord names | Customizing chord names
| custos | Custodes
| `Custos` | See also
| `Custos_engraver` | Custodes
D |  |
| D.S al Fine | Rehearsal marks
| dampened notes on fretted instruments | Indicating harmonics and dampened notes
| dashed slur | Slurs
| dashed slur | Slurs
| dashed ties | Ties
| decorating text | Graphic notation inside markup
| `decr` | Dynamics
| `decrescendo` | See also
| `dedication` | 3.2.1 Creating titles
| `default` | Automatic accidentals
| `default` | Automatic accidentals
| default accidental style | Automatic accidentals
| default accidental style | Automatic accidentals
| default note names | Accidentals
| `defaultBarType` | Selected Snippets
| `defaultTimeSignature` | Time signature
| `Default_bar_line_engraver` | See also
| defining markup commands | 6.4.1 Markup construction in Scheme
| Devnull context | Lyrics independent of notes
| diagram, fret, customized | Fret diagram markups
| diagrams, chord for fretted instruments | Fret diagram markups
| diagrams, fret | Fret diagram markups
| diagrams, fret, transposing | Predefined fret diagrams
| diamond note heads | Special note heads
| `dim` | Common chords
| `dimHairpin` | Dynamics
| diminuendo | Dynamics
| `dimTextDecr` | Dynamics
| `dimTextDecresc` | Dynamics
| `dimTextDim` | Dynamics
| discant symbols, accordion | Discant symbols
| `dispatcher` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `displayLilyMusic` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `displayLilyMusic` | B.14 Identifiers
| `displayMusic` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `displayMusic` | B.14 Identifiers
| distance between staves | 4.4.1 Vertical spacing inside a system
| distances, absolute | 5.4.3 Distances and measurements
| distances, scaled | 5.4.3 Distances and measurements
| divisio | Divisiones
| divisiones | Divisiones
| `dodecaphonic` | Automatic accidentals
| dodecaphonic accidental style | Automatic accidentals
| dodecaphonic style, neo-modern | Automatic accidentals
| `doit` | See also
| doits | Falls and doits
| `dorian` | Key signature
| `DotColumn` | See also
| `Dots` | See also
| `dotsDown` | Durations
| `dotsNeutral` | Durations
| `dotsUp` | Durations
| dotted notes | Durations
| dotted slur | Slurs
| dotted slur | Slurs
| dotted ties | Ties
| `double flat` | See also
| `double sharp` | See also
| double time signatures | Polymetric notation
| double-dotted notes | Durations
| `DoublePercentRepeat` | See also
| `DoublePercentRepeatCounter` | See also
| down bow indication | Bowing indications
| downbow | Articulations and ornamentations
| downbow | B.10 List of articulations
| drawing beams within text | B.8.3 Graphic
| drawing boxes with rounded corners | B.8.3 Graphic
| drawing boxes with rounded corners around text | B.8.3 Graphic
| drawing circles within text | B.8.3 Graphic
| drawing graphic objects | Graphic notation inside markup
| drawing lines within text | B.8.3 Graphic
| drawing solid boxes within text | B.8.3 Graphic
| drawing staff symbol | Staff symbol
| drawing staff symbol | 5.4.4 Staff symbol properties
| drawing triangles within text | B.8.3 Graphic
| drum staff | Instantiating new staves
| `drummode` | Instantiating new staves
| drums | Basic percussion notation
| drums | Percussion staves
| `DrumStaff` | See also
| `DrumStaff` | See also
| `DrumVoice` | See also
| `Duration names notes and rests` | See also
| durations, of notes | Durations
| durations, scaling | Scaling durations
| `dynamic` | New dynamic marks
| dynamic marks, multiple on one note | Dynamics
| dynamic marks, new | New dynamic marks
| dynamic-event | Selected Snippets
| `dynamicDown` | Dynamics
| `DynamicLineSpanner` | Dynamics
| `DynamicLineSpanner` | See also
| `dynamicNeutral` | Dynamics
| dynamics | Dynamics
| dynamics, absolute | Dynamics
| dynamics, centered in keyboard music | Known issues and warnings
| dynamics, editorial | New dynamic marks
| dynamics, parenthesis | New dynamic marks
| dynamics, vertical positioning | Dynamics
| `DynamicText` | See also
| `dynamicUp` | Dynamics
E |  |
| easy notation | Easy notation note heads
| easy play note heads | Easy notation note heads
| `easyHeadsOff` | Easy notation note heads
| `easyHeadsOn` | Easy notation note heads
| editorial dynamics | New dynamic marks
| embedded graphics | Graphic notation inside markup
| empty staves | Hiding staves
| enclosing text in a box with rounded corners | B.8.3 Graphic
| enclosing text within a box | B.8.1 Font
| end repeat | Manual repeat marks
| `endSpanners` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `endSpanners` | B.14 Identifiers
| `Engravers and Performers` | See also
| `Engravers and Performers` | 5.1.3 Modifying context plug-ins
| `Engravers explained` | See also
| `Engraving` | 4.5.1 Horizontal spacing overview
| `espressivo` | Dynamics
| espressivo | B.10 List of articulations
| espressivo articulation | Dynamics
| `evenFooterMarkup` | 3.2.2 Custom titles
| `evenHeaderMarkup` | 3.2.2 Custom titles
| exceptions, chord names. | Selected Snippets
| `expandFullBarRests` | Full measure rests
| explicitClefVisibility | Special considerations
| explicitKeySignatureVisibility | Special considerations
| `Explicitly instantiating voices` | Single-staff polyphony
| `Explicitly instantiating voices` | See also
| extended chords | Extended and altered chords
| extender | Extenders and hyphens
F |  |
| `f` | Dynamics
| F clef | Clef
| `fall` | See also
| falls | Falls and doits
| FDL, GNU Free Documentation License | E. GNU Free Documentation License
| `featherDurations` | Feathered beams
| `featherDurations` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `featherDurations` | B.14 Identifiers
| fermata | Rehearsal marks
| fermata | Articulations and ornamentations
| fermata | B.10 List of articulations
| fermata on bar line | Text marks
| fermata on multi-measure rest | Full measure rests
| `fermataMarkup` | Full measure rests
| Feta font | B.6 The Feta font
| `ff` | Dynamics
| `fff` | Dynamics
| `ffff` | Dynamics
| `fifth` | See also
| `figured bass` | See also
| Figured bass | Introduction to figured bass
| figured bass alignment | Predefined commands
| figured bass extender lines | Predefined commands
| `FiguredBass` | See also
| `FiguredBass` | See also
| `FiguredBass` | See also
| finalis | Divisiones
| finding graphical objects | 5.3.3 The `\override` command
| `finger` | Fingering instructions
| finger change | Fingering instructions
| `finger-interface` | 5.2.2 Layout interfaces
| `Fingering` | See also
| fingering | Fingering instructions
| `Fingering` | See also
| `Fingering` | 5.2.1 Navigating the program reference
| `Fingering` | 5.2.1 Navigating the program reference
| `Fingering` | 5.2.1 Navigating the program reference
| `Fingering` | 5.2.1 Navigating the program reference
| `Fingering` | 5.2.2 Layout interfaces
| `Fingering` | 5.2.2 Layout interfaces
| fingering chords | Fingering instructions
| fingering instructions for chords | Fingering instructions
| fingering vs. string numbers | String number indications
| `fingering-event` | See also
| `fingering-event` | 5.2.1 Navigating the program reference
| `fingering-event` | 5.2.1 Navigating the program reference
| `FingeringEvent` | See also
| `FingeringEvent` | 5.2.1 Navigating the program reference
| fingerings and multi-measure rests | See also
| fingerings, adding to fret diagrams | Automatic fret diagrams
| fingerings, right hand for fretted instruments | Right-hand fingerings
| `Fingering_engraver` | See also
| `Fingering_engraver` | 5.2.1 Navigating the program reference
| `Fingering_engraver` | 5.2.1 Navigating the program reference
| `Fingering_engraver` | 5.2.1 Navigating the program reference
| `Fingering_engraver` | 5.2.3 Determining the grob property
| `first-page-number` | Other layout variables
| `Fixing overlapping` | Changing staff manually
| `Fixing overlapping notation` | See also
| `flag-style` | Cross-staff stems
| flageolet | Articulations and ornamentations
| flageolet | B.10 List of articulations
| flags | Mensural flags
| `flat` | See also
| flat, double | Accidentals
| follow voice | Staff-change lines
| `followVoice` | Staff-change lines
| font families | Selecting font and font size
| font families, setting | Entire document fonts
| font size | Selecting font and font size
| font size (notation) | Selecting notation font size
| font size (notation) scaling | Selecting notation font size
| font size (notation), standard | Selecting notation font size
| font size, setting | 4.2.1 Setting the staff size
| font switching | Selecting font and font size
| Font, Feta | B.6 The Feta font
| `font-interface` | Selecting notation font size
| `font-interface` | Fonts explained
| `font-interface` | B.8.6 Other
| `font-size` | Selecting notation font size
| `font-size` | Selecting notation font size
| fonts, explained | Fonts explained
| `fontSize` | Selecting notation font size
| foot marks | Articulations and ornamentations
| foot marks | B.10 List of articulations
| `foot-separation` | Vertical dimensions
| footer | 3.2.2 Custom titles
| `Forbid_line_break_engraver` | See also
| `forget` | Automatic accidentals
| forget accidental style | Automatic accidentals
| format, rehearsal mark | Rehearsal marks
| `Formatting text` | B.13 Layout properties
| `Formatting text` | B.13 Layout properties
| four bar music. | 4.3.1 Line breaking
| `four-string-banjo` | Banjo tablatures
| `fp` | Dynamics
| fragments | Quoting other voices
| fragments | Formatting cue notes
| framing text | Graphic notation inside markup
| french clef | Clef
| Frenched score | Hiding staves
| `Frenched staff` | See also
| `Frenched staff` | See also
| Frenched staves | Ossia staves
| fret | Default tablatures
| fret diagram, customized | Fret diagram markups
| fret diagrams | Fret diagram markups
| fret diagrams | Predefined fret diagrams
| fret diagrams with chord names | Predefined fret diagrams
| fret diagrams, adding custom | Predefined fret diagrams
| fret diagrams, adding fingerings | Automatic fret diagrams
| fret diagrams, automatic | Automatic fret diagrams
| fret diagrams, custom | Fret diagram markups
| fret diagrams, transposing | Predefined fret diagrams
| `fret-diagram` | Fret diagram markups
| fret-diagram markup | Fret diagram markups
| `fret-diagram-interface` | Fret diagram markups
| `fret-diagram-interface` | See also
| `fret-diagram-interface` | Predefined fret diagrams
| `fret-diagram-interface` | See also
| `fret-diagram-interface` | Automatic fret diagrams
| `fret-diagram-interface` | See also
| `fret-diagram-terse` | Fret diagram markups
| fret-diagram-terse markup | Fret diagram markups
| `fret-diagram-verbose` | Fret diagram markups
| fret-diagram-verbose markup | Fret diagram markups
| `FretBoards` | Predefined fret diagrams
| fretted instruments, chord shapes | Predefined fret diagrams
| fretted instruments, dampened notes | Indicating harmonics and dampened notes
| fretted instruments, harmonics | Indicating harmonics and dampened notes
| fretted instruments, indicating position and barring | Indicating position and barring
| fretted instruments, predefined string tunings | Custom tablatures
| fretted instruments, right hand fingerings | Right-hand fingerings
| full-measure rests | Full measure rests
G |  |
| G clef | Clef
| ghost notes | Parentheses
| `glissando` | Glissando
| `Glissando` | See also
| `Glissando` | See also
| glyphs, music | Rehearsal marks
| `grace` | Grace notes
| `grace` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `grace` | B.14 Identifiers
| `grace notes` | See also
| grace notes | Bagpipe definitions
| grace notes within tuplet brackets | Known issues and warnings
| grace notes, following | Grace notes
| `GraceMusic` | See also
| `GraceMusic` | 6.2.2 Internal music representation
| `grand staff` | See also
| `GrandStaff` | See also
| `GrandStaff` | See also
| graphic notation | Graphic notation inside markup
| graphical object descriptions | 5.3.3 The `\override` command
| graphics, embedding | Graphic notation inside markup
| graphics, embedding | Graphic notation inside markup
| Gregorian square neumes ligatures | Gregorian square neume ligatures
| Gregorian transcription staff | Instantiating new staves
| `GregorianTranscriptionStaff` | See also
| grid lines | Grid lines
| `grid-line-interface` | See also
| `grid-point-interface` | See also
| `gridInterval` | Grid lines
| `GridLine` | See also
| `GridPoint` | See also
| `Grid_line_span_engraver` | Grid lines
| `Grid_point_engraver` | Grid lines
| grob | 5.2.2 Layout interfaces
| `grob-interface` | 5.2.2 Layout interfaces
| `grob-interface` | 5.2.2 Layout interfaces
| grobs, overwriting | Painting objects white
| grobs, visibility of | 5.4.6 Visibility of objects
| grouping beats | Selected Snippets
| `grow-direction` | Feathered beams
| guitar chord charts | Showing melody rhythms
| guitar note heads | Special note heads
| guitar strumming rhythms, showing | Showing melody rhythms
| guitar tablature | 2.4 Fretted string instruments
H |  |
| `Hairpin` | See also
| `hairpin` | See also
| hairpins, angled | Rotating layout objects
| Hal Leonard | Easy notation note heads
| harmonic indications in tablature notation | Default tablatures
| harmonic note heads | Special note heads
| `harmonics` | See also
| harmonics on fretted instruments | Indicating harmonics and dampened notes
| harmonics, artifical | Harmonics
| harmonics, natural | Harmonics
| harp pedal diagrams | Harp pedals
| harp pedals | Harp pedals
| harps | References for harps
| `head-separation` | Vertical dimensions
| header | 3.2.2 Custom titles
| help, balloon | Balloon help
| hidden notes | Hidden notes
| `hideKeySignature` | Bagpipe definitions
| `hideNotes` | Hidden notes
| `hideStaffSwitch` | Staff-change lines
| hiding ancient staves | Hiding staves
| hiding of staves | Hiding staves
| hiding rhythmic staves | Hiding staves
| horizontal bracket | Analysis brackets
| horizontal spacing | 4.5 Horizontal spacing
| horizontal text alignment | Text alignment
| `horizontal-bracket-interface` | See also
| `horizontal-shift` | Horizontal dimensions
| `HorizontalBracket` | See also
| horizontally centering text | B.8.2 Align
| `Horizontal_bracket_engraver` | Analysis brackets
| `How LilyPond input files work` | See also
| hufnagel | 2.8 Ancient notation
| hufnagel | 2.8.1 Overview of the supported styles
| `huge` | Selecting notation font size
| hyphens | Extenders and hyphens
I |  |
| `I'm hearing Voices` | See also
| `I'm hearing Voices` | Percussion staves
| images, embedding | Graphic notation inside markup
| importing stencils into text | B.8.6 Other
| improvisation | Improvisation
| `improvisationOff` | Improvisation
| `improvisationOff` | Showing melody rhythms
| `improvisationOn` | Improvisation
| `improvisationOn` | Showing melody rhythms
| `includePageLayoutFile` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `includePageLayoutFile` | B.14 Identifiers
| including files | 3.3.1 Including LilyPond files
| `indent` | Instrument names
| `indent` | Horizontal dimensions
| `indent` | 4.5.4 Line length
| indicating position and barring for fretted instruments | Indicating position and barring
| inlining an Encapsulated PostScript image | B.8.3 Graphic
| inserting music into text | B.8.4 Music
| inserting PostScript directly into text | B.8.3 Graphic
| inserting URL links into text | B.8.3 Graphic
| `instrument` | 3.2.1 Creating titles
| instrument names | Instrument names
| instrument names | Instrument names
| instrument names, centering | Instrument names
| instrument names, changing | Instrument names
| instrument names, short | Instrument names
| instrument switch | Instrument names
| `instrument-specific-markup-interface` | B.8.6 Other
| `InstrumentName` | See also
| instruments, transposing | Transpose
| `instrumentSwitch` | Instrument names
| `instrumentSwitch` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `instrumentSwitch` | B.14 Identifiers
| interface, layout | 5.2.2 Layout interfaces
| interleaved music | Writing music in parallel
| internal documentation | 5.3.3 The `\override` command
| internal documentation | 5.3.3 The `\override` command
| internal storage | 6.3.1 Displaying music expressions
| Internals Reference | 5. Changing defaults
| `interval` | See also
| invisible notes | Hidden notes
| invisible rest | Invisible rests
| invisible stem | Stems
| `Invoking lilypond` | 3.4.1 Extracting fragments of music
| `ionian` | Key signature
| `item-interface` | 5.2.2 Layout interfaces
J |  |
| jazz chords | Customizing chord names
| justified text | Text alignment
| justifying lines of text | B.9 Text markup list commands
| justifying text | B.8.2 Align
K |  |
| keep tagged music | Using tags
| `keepWithTag` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `keepWithTag` | B.14 Identifiers
| `key` | Key signature
| `key` | Shape note heads
| key signature | Accidentals
| key signature | Key signature
| key signature | Mensural accidentals and key signatures
| key signature | Gregorian accidentals and key signatures
| key signature, visibility following explicit change | Special considerations
| `key-cancellation-interface` | See also
| `key-signature-interface` | See also
| keyboard instrument staves | References for keyboards
| keyboard music, centering dynamics | Known issues and warnings
| `KeyCancellation` | See also
| `KeyChangeEvent` | See also
| keyed instrument staves | References for keyboards
| `KeySignature` | See also
| `KeySignature` | Mensural accidentals and key signatures
| `KeySignature` | See also
| `KeySignature` | Gregorian accidentals and key signatures
| `KeySignature` | See also
| `KeySignature` | See also
| `Key_engraver` | See also
| `Key_performer` | See also
| `killCues` | Formatting cue notes
| `killCues` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `killCues` | B.14 Identifiers
| kirchenpausen | Selected Snippets
L |  |
| `label` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `label` | B.14 Identifiers
| `laissez vibrer` | See also
| `laissezVibrer` | Ties
| `LaissezVibrerTie` | See also
| `LaissezVibrerTieColumn` | See also
| landscape | 4.1.1 Paper size
| language, note names in other | Note names in other languages
| language, pitch names in other | Note names in other languages
| `large` | Selecting notation font size
| layers | Painting objects white
| `layout file` | 4.2.1 Setting the staff size
| layout interface | 5.2.2 Layout interfaces
| `ledger line` | See also
| ledger lines, setting | Staff symbol
| `ledger-line-spanner-interface` | See also
| `LedgerLineSpanner` | See also
| `Ledger_line_engraver` | See also
| left aligning text | B.8.2 Align
| `left-margin` | Horizontal dimensions
| `length` | Cross-staff stems
| `Length and thickness of objects` | See also
| `Length and thickness of objects` | 5.4.3 Distances and measurements
| `Length and thickness of objects` | See also
| length of notes | Durations
| `LigatureBracket` | Ligatures
| Ligatures | Ligatures
| ligatures in text | B.8.2 Align
| `Ligature_bracket_engraver` | White mensural ligatures
| `Ligature_bracket_engraver` | White mensural ligatures
| `line` | See also
| line breaks | Bar lines
| line breaks | 4.3.1 Line breaking
| line breaks and beams | Selected Snippets
| line, cross-staff | Staff-change lines
| line, staff-change | Staff-change lines
| line, staff-change follower | Staff-change lines
| `line-spanner-interface` | See also
| `line-width` | Horizontal dimensions
| `line-width` | 4.5.4 Line length
| `LineBreakEvent` | See also
| lines, grid | Grid lines
| lines, vertical between staves | Grid lines
| List of colors | Normal colors
| `listener` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `locrian` | Key signature
| `longa` | Durations
| `longa` | Rests
| longa rest | Rests
| lowering text | B.8.2 Align
| `ly:add-file-name-alist` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:add-interface` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:add-listener` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:add-option` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:all-grob-interfaces` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:all-options` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:all-stencil-expressions` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:assoc-get` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:book-add-bookpart!` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:book-add-score!` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:book-process` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:book-process-to-systems` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:box?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:bp` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:bracket` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:broadcast` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:camel-case->lisp-identifier` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:chain-assoc-get` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:clear-anonymous-modules` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:cm` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:command-line-code` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:command-line-options` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:command-line-verbose?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:connect-dispatchers` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:context-event-source` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:context-events-below` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:context-find` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:context-grob-definition` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:context-id` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:context-name` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:context-now` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:context-parent` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:context-property` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:context-property-where-defined` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:context-pushpop-property` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:context-set-property!` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:context-unset-property` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:context?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:default-scale` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:dimension?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:dir?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:duration->string` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:duration-dot-count` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:duration-factor` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:duration-length` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:duration-log` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:duration<?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:duration?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:effective-prefix` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:error` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:eval-simple-closure` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:event-deep-copy` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:event-property` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:event-set-property!` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:expand-environment` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:export` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:find-file` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:font-config-add-directory` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:font-config-add-font` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:font-config-display-fonts` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:font-config-get-font-file` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:font-design-size` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:font-file-name` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:font-get-glyph` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:font-glyph-name-to-charcode` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:font-glyph-name-to-index` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:font-index-to-charcode` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:font-magnification` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:font-metric?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:font-name` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:font-sub-fonts` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:format` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:format-output` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:get-all-function-documentation` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:get-all-translators` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:get-glyph` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:get-listened-event-classes` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:get-option` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:gettext` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:grob-alist-chain` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:grob-array-length` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:grob-array-ref` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:grob-array?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:grob-basic-properties` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:grob-common-refpoint` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:grob-common-refpoint-of-array` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:grob-default-font` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:grob-extent` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:grob-interfaces` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:grob-layout` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:grob-object` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:grob-original` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:grob-parent` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:grob-pq<?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:grob-properties` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:grob-property` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:grob-property-data` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:grob-relative-coordinate` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:grob-robust-relative-extent` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:grob-script-priority-less` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:grob-set-property!` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:grob-staff-position` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:grob-suicide!` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:grob-system` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:grob-translate-axis!` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:grob?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:gulp-file` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:hash-table-keys` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:inch` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:input-both-locations` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:input-file-line-char-column` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:input-location?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:input-message` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:interpret-music-expression` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:interpret-stencil-expression` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:intlog2` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:is-listened-event-class` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:item-break-dir` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:item?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:iterator?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:lexer-keywords` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:lily-lexer?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:lily-parser?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:make-book` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:make-book-part` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:make-dispatcher` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:make-duration` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:make-global-context` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:make-global-translator` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:make-listener` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:make-moment` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:make-music` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:make-music-function` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:make-output-def` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:make-page-label-marker` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:make-page-permission-marker` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:make-pango-description-string` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:make-paper-outputter` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:make-pitch` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:make-prob` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:make-scale` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:make-score` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:make-simple-closure` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:make-stencil` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:make-stream-event` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:message` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:minimal-breaking` | 4.3.5 Minimal page breaking
| `ly:minimal-breaking` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:mm` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:module->alist` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:module-copy` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:modules-lookup` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:moment-add` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:moment-div` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:moment-grace-denominator` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:moment-grace-numerator` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:moment-main-denominator` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:moment-main-numerator` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:moment-mod` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:moment-mul` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:moment-sub` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:moment<?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:moment?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:music-compress` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:music-deep-copy` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:music-duration-compress` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:music-duration-length` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:music-function-extract` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:music-function?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:music-length` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:music-list?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:music-mutable-properties` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:music-output?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:music-property` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:music-set-property!` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:music-transpose` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:music?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:note-head::stem-attachment` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:number->string` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:optimal-breaking` | 4.3.3 Optimal page breaking
| `ly:optimal-breaking` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:option-usage` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:otf->cff` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:otf-font-glyph-info` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:otf-font-table-data` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:otf-font?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:otf-glyph-list` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:output-def-clone` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:output-def-lookup` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:output-def-parent` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:output-def-scope` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:output-def-set-variable!` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:output-def?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:output-description` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:output-formats` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:outputter-close` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:outputter-dump-stencil` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:outputter-dump-string` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:outputter-output-scheme` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:outputter-port` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:page-marker?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:page-turn-breaking` | 4.3.4 Optimal page turning
| `ly:page-turn-breaking` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:pango-font-physical-fonts` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:pango-font?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:paper-book-pages` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:paper-book-paper` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:paper-book-performances` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:paper-book-scopes` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:paper-book-systems` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:paper-book?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:paper-fonts` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:paper-get-font` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:paper-get-number` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:paper-outputscale` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:paper-score-paper-systems` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:paper-system-minimum-distance` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:paper-system?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:parse-file` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:parser-clear-error` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:parser-clone` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:parser-define!` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:parser-error` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:parser-has-error?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:parser-lexer` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:parser-lookup` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:parser-output-name` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:parser-parse-string` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:parser-set-note-names` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:performance-write` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:pfb->pfa` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:pitch-alteration` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:pitch-diff` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:pitch-negate` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:pitch-notename` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:pitch-octave` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:pitch-quartertones` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:pitch-semitones` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:pitch-steps` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:pitch-transpose` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:pitch<?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:pitch?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:position-on-line?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:prob-immutable-properties` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:prob-mutable-properties` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:prob-property` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:prob-property?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:prob-set-property!` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:prob-type?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:prob?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:programming-error` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:progress` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:property-lookup-stats` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:protects` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:pt` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:register-stencil-expression` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:relative-group-extent` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:reset-all-fonts` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:round-filled-box` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:round-filled-polygon` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:run-translator` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:score-add-output-def!` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:score-embedded-format` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:score-error?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:score-header` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:score-music` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:score-output-defs` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:score-set-header!` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:score?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:set-default-scale` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:set-grob-modification-callback` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:set-middle-C!` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:set-option` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:set-property-cache-callback` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:simple-closure?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:skyline-pair?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:skyline?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:smob-protects` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:solve-spring-rod-problem` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:source-file?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:spanner-bound` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:spanner-broken-into` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:spanner?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:staff-symbol-line-thickness` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:start-environment` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:stderr-redirect` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:stencil-add` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:stencil-aligned-to` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:stencil-combine-at-edge` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:stencil-empty?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:stencil-expr` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:stencil-extent` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:stencil-fonts` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:stencil-in-color` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:stencil-rotate` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:stencil-rotate-absolute` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:stencil-translate` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:stencil-translate-axis` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:stencil?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:stream-event?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:string-substitute` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:system-font-load` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:system-print` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:system-stretch` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:text-dimension` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:text-interface::interpret-markup` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:translator-description` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:translator-group?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:translator-name` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:translator?` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:transpose-key-alist` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:truncate-list!` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:ttf->pfa` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:ttf-ps-name` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:unit` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:usage` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:version` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:warning` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `ly:wide-char->utf-8` | B.15 Scheme functions
| `lydian` | Key signature
| `LyricCombineMusic` | See also
| `LyricCombineMusic` | See also
| `LyricExtender` | See also
| `LyricHyphen` | See also
| lyrics | Lyrics explained
| `Lyrics` | See also
| `Lyrics` | See also
| `Lyrics` | 2.1.3 Aligning lyrics to a melody
| `Lyrics` | See also
| `Lyrics` | B.12 All context properties
| lyrics and beaming | Setting automatic beam behavior
| lyrics and melodies | Automatic syllable durations
| lyrics assigned to one voice | Single-staff polyphony
| Lyrics, increasing space between | Spacing out syllables
| lyrics, skip | Invisible rests
| lyrics, variables | Working with lyrics and variables
| `LyricSpace` | See also
| `LyricText` | See also
| `LyricText` | See also
M |  |
| `m` | Common chords
| magnifying text | B.8.1 Font
| `magstep` | Selecting notation font size
| `magstep` | 5.4.3 Distances and measurements
| `maj` | Common chords
| `major` | Key signature
| `major seven symbols` | Predefined commands
| `majorSevenSymbol` | Customizing chord names
| `make-dynamic-script` | New dynamic marks
| `make-pango-font-tree` | Entire document fonts
| `makeClusters` | Clusters
| `makeClusters` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `makeClusters` | B.14 Identifiers
| manual bar lines | Bar lines
| manual beams | Automatic beams
| manual beams | Manual beams
| manual measure lines | Bar lines
| manual repeat mark | Manual repeat marks
| manual staff changes | Changing staff manually
| maqam | References for Arabic music
| maqams | References for Arabic music
| marcato | Articulations and ornamentations
| marcato | B.10 List of articulations
| `mark` | Rehearsal marks
| mark, phrasing | Phrasing slurs
| mark, rehearsal | Rehearsal marks
| mark, rehearsal, format | Rehearsal marks
| mark, rehearsal, manual | Rehearsal marks
| mark, rehearsal, style | Rehearsal marks
| markup | Text markup introduction
| markup expressions | Text markup introduction
| markup mode, special characters | Text markup introduction
| markup syntax | Text markup introduction
| markup text | Text markup introduction
| `maxima` | Durations
| `maxima` | Rests
| maxima rest | Rests
| measure check | Bar and bar number checks
| measure groupings | Selected Snippets
| measure lines | Bar lines
| measure lines, invisible | Bar lines
| measure lines, manual | Bar lines
| measure number | Time administration
| measure number and repeats | Known issues and warnings
| measure number check | Bar and bar number checks
| measure number, format | Selected Snippets
| measure numbers | Bar numbers
| measure repeats | Percent repeats
| measure sub-grouping | Selected Snippets
| measure, change length | Upbeats
| measure, partial | Upbeats
| `measureLength` | Automatic beams
| `measureLength` | Setting automatic beam behavior
| `measureLength` | Time administration
| `measurePosition` | Time administration
| Medicaea, Editio | 2.8 Ancient notation
| Medicaea, Editio | 2.8.1 Overview of the supported styles
| medium intervals | References for Arabic music
| melisma | Multiple notes to one syllable
| melisma | Extenders and hyphens
| melismata | Multiple notes to one syllable
| melody rhythms, showing | Showing melody rhythms
| mensural | 2.8 Ancient notation
| mensural | 2.8.1 Overview of the supported styles
| Mensural ligatures | White mensural ligatures
| mensural music, transcription of | Selected Snippets
| `MensuralStaff` | See also
| MensuralStaffContext | Mensural contexts
| MensuralVoiceContext | Mensural contexts
| `Mensural_ligature_engraver` | White mensural ligatures
| `Mensural_ligature_engraver` | White mensural ligatures
| `Mensural_ligature_engraver` | 2.8.4 Typesetting Gregorian chant
| mensuration sign | Mensural time signatures
| mensurstriche layout | Selected Snippets
| `mergeDifferentlyDottedOff` | Collision resolution
| `mergeDifferentlyDottedOn` | Collision resolution
| `mergeDifferentlyHeadedOff` | Collision resolution
| `mergeDifferentlyHeadedOn` | Collision resolution
| merging notes | Collision resolution
| merging text | B.8.2 Align
| `meter` | 3.2.1 Creating titles
| meter style | Time signature
| meter, polymetric | Polymetric notation
| `metronome` | See also
| `metronome mark` | See also
| metronome marking | Metronome marks
| metronome marking with text | Metronome marks
| `MetronomeMark` | See also
| `metronomic indication` | See also
| mezzosoprano clef | Clef
| `mf` | Dynamics
| microtones | Note names in other languages
| Microtones in MIDI | Supported in MIDI
| MIDI | Instrument transpositions
| MIDI | 3.5 MIDI output
| MIDI block | 3.5.2 MIDI block
| MIDI context definitions | 3.5.2 MIDI block
| MIDI transposition | Instrument transpositions
| MIDI, chord names | Supported in MIDI
| MIDI, microtones | Supported in MIDI
| MIDI, Pitches | Supported in MIDI
| MIDI, quarter tones | Supported in MIDI
| MIDI, Rhythms | Supported in MIDI
| `minimumFret` | Default tablatures
| `minimumPageTurnLength` | 4.3.4 Optimal page turning
| `minimumRepeatLengthForPageTurn` | 4.3.4 Optimal page turning
| `minor` | Key signature
| `mixed` | Piano pedals
| `mixolydian` | Key signature
| `modern` | Automatic accidentals
| modern accidental style | Automatic accidentals
| modern accidental style | Automatic accidentals
| modern accidental style | Automatic accidentals
| modern accidentals | Automatic accidentals
| modern cautionary accidental style | Automatic accidentals
| modern style accidentals | Automatic accidentals
| modern style accidentals | Automatic accidentals
| modern style cautionary accidentals | Automatic accidentals
| `modern-cautionary` | Automatic accidentals
| modern-cautionary accidental style | Automatic accidentals
| `modern-voice` | Automatic accidentals
| `modern-voice-cautionary` | Automatic accidentals
| modes | Key signature
| modifiers, in chords. | Common chords
| mordent | Articulations and ornamentations
| mordent | B.10 List of articulations
| movements, multiple | 3.1.2 Multiple scores in a book
| `Moving` | Known issues and warnings
| `Moving objects` | Text alignment
| `Moving objects` | See also
| `mp` | Dynamics
| multi-line markup | Text alignment
| multi-line text | Text alignment
| `multi-measure rest` | See also
| multi-measure rest, attaching fermata | Full measure rests
| multi-measure rest, attaching text | Full measure rests
| multi-measure rest, contracting | Full measure rests
| multi-measure rest, expanding | Full measure rests
| multi-measure rest, script | Full measure rests
| multi-measure rests | Full measure rests
| multi-measure rests and fingerings | See also
| multi-measure rests, positioning | Selected Snippets
| `MultiMeasureRest` | See also
| `MultiMeasureRestNumber` | See also
| `MultiMeasureRestText` | See also
| multiple dynamic marks on one note | Dynamics
| `Multiple notes at once` | See also
| multiple phrasing slurs | Phrasing slurs
| multiple slurs | Slurs
| multiple voices | Collision resolution
| multivoice accidentals | Automatic accidentals
| `Music classes` | 6.2.2 Internal music representation
| `Music definitions` | 5.2.1 Navigating the program reference
| `Music expressions` | 6.2.2 Internal music representation
| `Music expressions explained` | See also
| music glyphs | Rehearsal marks
| `Music properties` | 6.2.2 Internal music representation
| music, beginners’ | Easy notation note heads
| music, unmetered | Time administration
| Musica ficta | Annotational accidentals (musica ficta)
| `musicglyph` | Rehearsal marks
| `musicMap` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `musicMap` | B.14 Identifiers
| musicological analysis | Analysis brackets
N |  |
| name of singer | Adding singers’ names to stanzas
| natural harmonics | Harmonics
| natural pitch | Accidentals
| natural sign | Accidentals
| `neo-modern` | Automatic accidentals
| neo-modern accidental style | Automatic accidentals
| `neo-modern-cautionary` | Automatic accidentals
| neo-modern-cautionary accidental style | Automatic accidentals
| neomensural | 2.8.1 Overview of the supported styles
| nested contexts | 5.1.6 Aligning contexts
| nested repeat | Known issues and warnings
| nested staff brackets | Nested staff groups
| `Nesting music expressions` | Ossia staves
| `Nesting music expressions` | See also
| nesting of staves | Nested staff groups
| new contexts | 5.1.2 Creating contexts
| new dynamic marks | New dynamic marks
| new staff | Instantiating new staves
| `New_fingering_engraver` | See also
| `New_fingering_engraver` | 5.2.1 Navigating the program reference
| niente, al | Selected Snippets
| no reset accidental style | Automatic accidentals
| `no-reset` | Automatic accidentals
| `noBeam` | Manual beams
| non-empty texts | Text scripts
| `NonMusicalPaperColumn` | See also
| `noPageBreak` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `noPageBreak` | B.14 Identifiers
| `noPageTurn` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `noPageTurn` | B.14 Identifiers
| normal repeat | 1.4.1 Long repeats
| `normalsize` | Selecting notation font size
| notation font size | Selecting notation font size
| notation, explaining | Balloon help
| note cluster | Clusters
| note collisions | Collision resolution
| note durations | Durations
| note grouping bracket | Analysis brackets
| note head styles | Special note heads
| note head styles | B.7 Note head styles
| note heads | Selecting notation font size
| note heads, Aiken | Shape note heads
| note heads, ancient | Mensural note heads
| note heads, cross | Special note heads
| note heads, diamond | Special note heads
| note heads, easy notation | Easy notation note heads
| note heads, easy play | Easy notation note heads
| note heads, guitar | Special note heads
| note heads, harmonic | Special note heads
| note heads, improvisation | Improvisation
| note heads, parlato | Special note heads
| note heads, practice | Easy notation note heads
| note heads, sacred harp | Shape note heads
| note heads, shape | Shape note heads
| note heads, slashed | Improvisation
| note heads, special | Special note heads
| note lengths | Durations
| note names, default | Accidentals
| note names, Dutch | Accidentals
| note names, other languages | Note names in other languages
| `note value` | See also
| `note-collision-interface` | B.13 Layout properties
| `note-collision-interface` | B.13 Layout properties
| `note-collision-interface` | B.13 Layout properties
| `note-event` | See also
| `note-event` | See also
| `note-event` | See also
| `note-head-interface` | See also
| `note-head-interface` | See also
| `note-head-interface` | See also
| `NoteCollision` | See also
| `NoteColumn` | See also
| `NoteEvent` | 6.2.2 Internal music representation
| `NoteEvent` | 6.2.2 Internal music representation
| `NoteHead` | See also
| `NoteHead` | See also
| `NoteHead` | See also
| `NoteHead` | Mensural note heads
| `NoteHead` | 6.5.2 Running a function on all layout objects
| `NoteHead` | 6.5.2 Running a function on all layout objects
| notes within text by log and dot-count | B.8.4 Music
| notes within text by string | B.8.4 Music
| notes, colored | Coloring objects
| notes, colored in chords | See also
| notes, cross-staff | Changing staff manually
| notes, cross-staff | Cross-staff stems
| notes, dotted | Durations
| notes, double-dotted | Durations
| notes, ghost | Parentheses
| notes, hidden | Hidden notes
| notes, invisible | Hidden notes
| notes, parenthesized | Parentheses
| notes, splitting | Automatic note splitting
| notes, transparent | Hidden notes
| notes, transposition of | Transpose
| `NoteSpacing` | See also
| `NoteSpacing` | 4.5.1 Horizontal spacing overview
| `NoteSpacing` | See also
| `Note_heads_engraver` | Automatic note splitting
| `Note_heads_engraver` | See also
| `Note_heads_engraver` | See also
| `Note_heads_engraver` | See also
| `Note_heads_engraver` | 5.1.5 Defining new contexts
| `Note_head_line_engraver` | See also
| `Note_spacing_engraver` | See also
| number of staff lines | Staff symbol
| numbers, bar | Bar numbers
| numbers, measure | Bar numbers
| `numericTimeSignature` | Time signature
O |  |
| objects, colored | Coloring objects
| objects, coloring | Painting objects white
| objects, overwriting | Painting objects white
| objects, rotating | Rotating layout objects
| objects, visibility of | 5.4.6 Visibility of objects
| ocatve specification, relative | Relative octave entry
| octavated clefs, visibility of | Special considerations
| `OctavateEight` | See also
| `octavation` | See also
| octave changing mark | Absolute octave entry
| octave check | Octave checks
| octave correction | Octave checks
| octave entry, absolute | Absolute octave entry
| octave entry, relative | Relative octave entry
| octave specification, absolute | Absolute octave entry
| octave transposition | Clef
| `octaveCheck` | Octave checks
| `octaveCheck` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `octaveCheck` | B.14 Identifiers
| `oddFooterMarkup` | 3.2.2 Custom titles
| `oddHeaderMarkup` | 3.2.2 Custom titles
| `On the un-nestedness of brackets and ties` | See also
| `On the un-nestedness of brackets and ties` | See also
| `oneVoice` | Single-staff polyphony
| open | Articulations and ornamentations
| open | B.10 List of articulations
| open string indication | Bowing indications
| `opus` | 3.2.1 Creating titles
| orchestral strings | 2.3 Unfretted string instruments
| organ pedal marks | Articulations and ornamentations
| organ pedal marks | B.10 List of articulations
| `Organizing` | Using variables
| `Organizing pieces with variables` | See also
| `Organizing pieces with variables` | See also
| orientation | 4.1.1 Paper size
| ornamentation | Articulations and ornamentations
| ornaments | Grace notes
| ornaments | Articulations and ornamentations
| `ossia` | See also
| ossia | Hiding staves
| ossia | 5.1.6 Aligning contexts
| `Other sources of information` | Setting automatic beam behavior
| `Other sources of information` | Selected Snippets
| `Other sources of information` | See also
| `Other sources of information` | 3.3.1 Including LilyPond files
| `Other sources of information` | 3.3.1 Including LilyPond files
| `Other sources of information` | See also
| `Other sources of information` | 3.5.2 MIDI block
| `Other sources of information` | Dynamic marks
| `Other sources of information` | 5.2.2 Layout interfaces
| `Other sources of information` | See also
| `Other uses for tweaks` | References for keyboards
| `Other uses for tweaks` | See also
| `ottava` | Ottava brackets
| `ottava` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `ottava` | B.14 Identifiers
| `ottava-bracket-interface` | See also
| `OttavaBracket` | See also
| `Ottava_spanner_engraver` | See also
| `outside-staff-horizontal-padding` | 4.4.5 Vertical collision avoidance
| `outside-staff-padding` | 4.4.5 Vertical collision avoidance
| `outside-staff-priority` | 4.4.5 Vertical collision avoidance
| `overrideProperty` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `OverrideProperty` | See also
| `overrideProperty` | B.14 Identifiers
| overriding properties within text markup | B.8.6 Other
| overwriting objects | Painting objects white
P |  |
| `p` | Dynamics
| padding | 5.2.3 Determining the grob property
| padding around text | Graphic notation inside markup
| padding text | B.8.2 Align
| padding text horizontally | B.8.2 Align
| page breaks | 4.5.4 Line length
| page breaks, forcing | 3.2.1 Creating titles
| page layout | 3.2.2 Custom titles
| page layout | 4.5.4 Line length
| page size | 4.1.1 Paper size
| `page-breaking-between-system-padding` | Other layout variables
| `page-count` | Other layout variables
| `page-limit-inter-system-space` | Other layout variables
| `page-limit-inter-system-space-factor` | Other layout variables
| `page-spacing-weight` | Other layout variables
| `page-top-space` | Vertical dimensions
| `pageBreak` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `pageBreak` | B.14 Identifiers
| `pageTurn` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `pageTurn` | B.14 Identifiers
| Pango | Fonts explained
| paper size | 4.1.1 Paper size
| `paper-height` | Vertical dimensions
| `paper-width` | Horizontal dimensions
| parallel music | Writing music in parallel
| `parallelMusic` | Writing music in parallel
| `parallelMusic` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `parallelMusic` | B.14 Identifiers
| parentheses | Parentheses
| `parentheses-interface` | See also
| `ParenthesesItem` | See also
| `Parenthesis_engraver` | See also
| `parenthesize` | Parentheses
| `parenthesize` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `parenthesize` | B.14 Identifiers
| parenthesized accidental | Accidentals
| parlato | Spoken music
| parlato note heads | Special note heads
| `part` | See also
| part combiner | Automatic part combining
| `partcombine` | Automatic part combining
| `partcombine` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `partcombine` | B.14 Identifiers
| `PartCombineMusic` | See also
| `partial` | Upbeats
| partial measure | Upbeats
| pause mark | Breath marks
| pedal diagrams, harp | Harp pedals
| pedal indication styles | Piano pedals
| pedal indication, bracket | Piano pedals
| pedal indication, mixed | Piano pedals
| pedal indication, text | Piano pedals
| pedal marks, organ | Articulations and ornamentations
| pedal sustain style | Piano pedals
| pedal, sostenuto | Piano pedals
| pedal, sustain | Piano pedals
| pedals, harp | Harp pedals
| pedals, piano | Piano pedals
| `pedalSustainStyle` | Piano pedals
| `percent` | Percent repeats
| `percent repeat` | See also
| percent repeats | Percent repeats
| `PercentRepeat` | See also
| `PercentRepeatCounter` | See also
| `PercentRepeatedMusic` | See also
| percussion | Basic percussion notation
| percussion | Percussion staves
| percussion staff | Instantiating new staves
| Petrucci | 2.8 Ancient notation
| Petrucci | 2.8.1 Overview of the supported styles
| phrasing bracket | Analysis brackets
| phrasing marks | Phrasing slurs
| phrasing slur | Slurs
| phrasing slurs | Phrasing slurs
| phrasing slurs, multiple | Phrasing slurs
| phrasing slurs, simultaneous | Phrasing slurs
| phrasing, in lyrics | Multiple notes to one syllable
| `PhrasingSlur` | See also
| `phrasingSlurDashed` | Phrasing slurs
| `phrasingSlurDotted` | Phrasing slurs
| `phrasingSlurDown` | Phrasing slurs
| `phrasingSlurNeutral` | Phrasing slurs
| `phrasingSlurSolid` | Phrasing slurs
| `phrasingSlurUp` | Phrasing slurs
| `phrygian` | Key signature
| `piano` | Automatic accidentals
| piano accidental style | Automatic accidentals
| piano accidentals | Automatic accidentals
| piano cautionary accidental style | Automatic accidentals
| piano cautionary accidentals | Automatic accidentals
| piano music, centering dynamics | Known issues and warnings
| piano pedals | Piano pedals
| piano staff | Grouping staves
| piano staves | References for keyboards
| `Piano templates` | Known issues and warnings
| `piano-cautionary` | Automatic accidentals
| `PianoPedalBracket` | See also
| `PianoStaff` | References for keyboards
| `PianoStaff` | Changing staff automatically
| `PianoStaff` | See also
| `PianoStaff` | See also
| `PianoStaff` | See also
| `Piano_pedal_engraver` | See also
| pickup in a repeat | Normal repeats
| pickup measure | Upbeats
| `piece` | 3.2.1 Creating titles
| `pipeSymbol` | Bar and bar number checks
| `Pitch names` | See also
| pitch names | Absolute octave entry
| `Pitch names` | See also
| `Pitch names` | See also
| `Pitch names` | See also
| pitch names, other languages | Note names in other languages
| pitch range | Ambitus
| pitched trill with forced accidental | Trills
| pitched trills | Trills
| `pitchedTrill` | Trills
| `pitchedTrill` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `pitchedTrill` | B.14 Identifiers
| pitches | Absolute octave entry
| Pitches in MIDI | Supported in MIDI
| pitches, transposition of | Transpose
| `Pitch_squash_engraver` | Showing melody rhythms
| `Pitch_squash_engraver` | See also
| `Pitch_squash_engraver` | 5.1.5 Defining new contexts
| `Pitch_squash_engraver` | B.12 All context properties
| pizzicato, Bartók | Snap (Bartók) pizzicato
| pizzicato, snap | Snap (Bartók) pizzicato
| placing horizontal brackets around text | B.8.3 Graphic
| placing vertical brackets around text | B.8.3 Graphic
| `poet` | 3.2.1 Creating titles
| `pointAndClickOff` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `pointAndClickOff` | B.14 Identifiers
| `pointAndClickOn` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `pointAndClickOn` | B.14 Identifiers
| `polymetric` | See also
| `polymetric` | See also
| polymetric scores | 5.1.3 Modifying context plug-ins
| polymetric signatures | Polymetric notation
| `polymetric time signature` | See also
| polyphonic music | Collision resolution
| `polyphony` | See also
| polyphony, single-staff | Single-staff polyphony
| `portato` | See also
| portato | B.10 List of articulations
| positioning multi-measure rests | Selected Snippets
| postscript | Graphic notation inside markup
| `pp` | Dynamics
| `ppp` | Dynamics
| `pppp` | Dynamics
| `ppppp` | Dynamics
| practice note heads | Easy notation note heads
| prall | Articulations and ornamentations
| prall | B.10 List of articulations
| prall, down | Articulations and ornamentations
| prall, down | B.10 List of articulations
| prall, up | Articulations and ornamentations
| prall, up | B.10 List of articulations
| prallmordent | Articulations and ornamentations
| prallmordent | B.10 List of articulations
| prallprall | Articulations and ornamentations
| prallprall | B.10 List of articulations
| predefined string tunings for fretted instruments | Custom tablatures
| `predefinedFretboardsOff` | Automatic fret diagrams
| `predefinedFretboardsOn` | Automatic fret diagrams
| prima volta | 1.4.1 Long repeats
| `print-all-headers` | 3.2.1 Creating titles
| `print-all-headers` | Other layout variables
| `print-first-page-number` | Other layout variables
| `print-page-number` | Other layout variables
| printing chord names | Printing chord names
| printing order | Painting objects white
| printing special characters | Text markup introduction
| properties | 5.3.2 The `\set` command
| `PropertySet` | See also
| punctuation | Lyrics explained
| putting space around text | B.8.2 Align
Q |  |
| `quarter tone` | See also
| quarter tones | Accidentals
| Quarter tones in MIDI | Supported in MIDI
| quarter-tone accidental | See also
| quoted text | Text scripts
| quoted text in markup mode | Text markup introduction
| `quotedEventTypes` | Selected Snippets
| `quoteDuring` | Quoting other voices
| `quoteDuring` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `quoteDuring` | B.14 Identifiers
| `QuoteMusic` | See also
| quotes, in lyrics | Lyrics explained
| quotes, in lyrics | Lyrics explained
| quoting other voices | Quoting other voices
| quoting other voices | Formatting cue notes
R |  |
| `r` | Rests
| `R` | Full measure rests
| `ragged-bottom` | Other layout variables
| `ragged-last` | Other layout variables
| `ragged-last` | 4.5.4 Line length
| `ragged-last-bottom` | Other layout variables
| `ragged-right` | Other layout variables
| `ragged-right` | 4.5.4 Line length
| railroad tracks | Selected Snippets
| raising text | B.8.2 Align
| range of pitches | Ambitus
| Ratisbona, Editio | 2.8.1 Overview of the supported styles
| `Real music example` | References for keyboards
| `Real music example` | See also
| referencing page numbers in text | B.8.6 Other
| regular line breaks | 4.3.1 Line breaking
| rehearsal mark format | Rehearsal marks
| rehearsal mark style | Rehearsal marks
| rehearsal mark, manual | Rehearsal marks
| rehearsal marks | Rehearsal marks
| `RehearsalMark` | See also
| `RehearsalMark` | See also
| `relative` | Relative octave entry
| `relative` | See also
| `relative` | See also
| `relative` | Changing staff automatically
| relative music and autochange | Changing staff automatically
| relative octave entry | Relative octave entry
| relative octave entry and chords | Relative octave entry
| relative octave entry and transposition | See also
| relative octave specification | Relative octave entry
| relative pitch in chords | Chorded notes
| `RelativeOctaveCheck` | See also
| `RelativeOctaveMusic` | See also
| reminder accidental | Accidentals
| removals, in chords | Extended and altered chords
| remove tagged music | Using tags
| `RemoveEmptyRhythmicStaffContext` | Hiding staves
| `RemoveEmptyStaffContext` | Hiding staves
| `RemoveEmptyStaffContext` | Hiding staves
| `removeWithTag` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `removeWithTag` | B.14 Identifiers
| removing cue notes | Formatting cue notes
| removing cues | Formatting cue notes
| renaissance music | Selected Snippets
| `repeat` | See also
| repeat and measure number | Known issues and warnings
| repeat and slur | Known issues and warnings
| repeat bars | Bar lines
| repeat number, changing | Manual repeat marks
| repeat timing information | Known issues and warnings
| repeat volta, changing | Manual repeat marks
| repeat with alternate endings | 1.4.1 Long repeats
| repeat with anacrucis | Normal repeats
| repeat with pickup | Normal repeats
| repeat with upbeat | Normal repeats
| repeat, ambiguous | Known issues and warnings
| repeat, end | Manual repeat marks
| repeat, manual | Manual repeat marks
| repeat, measure | Percent repeats
| repeat, nested | Known issues and warnings
| repeat, normal | 1.4.1 Long repeats
| repeat, percent | Percent repeats
| repeat, short | Percent repeats
| repeat, start | Manual repeat marks
| repeat, tremolo | Tremolo repeats
| repeat, unfold | Written-out repeats
| `repeatCommands` | Manual repeat marks
| `RepeatedMusic` | See also
| `RepeatedMusic` | See also
| `RepeatedMusic` | See also
| `RepeatedMusic` | 6.2.2 Internal music representation
| repeating ties | Ties
| repeats | Bar lines
| repeats in MIDI | 3.5.4 Repeats in MIDI
| repeats with ties | Normal repeats
| repeats, written-out | Written-out repeats
| `RepeatSlash` | See also
| `repeatTie` | Ties
| repetitious music | Written-out repeats
| reserved characters, printing | Text markup introduction
| `resetRelativeOctave` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `resetRelativeOctave` | B.14 Identifiers
| resizing of staves | Ossia staves
| `rest` | Rests
| `Rest` | See also
| `Rest` | Mensural rests
| rest, church | Selected Snippets
| rest, collisions of | Known issues and warnings
| rest, condensing ordinary | Known issues and warnings
| rest, entering durations | Rests
| rest, full-measure | Full measure rests
| rest, invisible | Invisible rests
| rest, multi-measure | Rests
| rest, multi-measure | Full measure rests
| rest, specifying vertical position | Rests
| rest, whole for a full measure | Full measure rests
| rest, whole-measure | Rests
| rest-event | Selected Snippets
| `RestCollision` | See also
| rests, ancient | Mensural rests
| reverseturn | Articulations and ornamentations
| reverseturn | B.10 List of articulations
| `RevertProperty` | See also
| `rfz` | Dynamics
| rgb color | Coloring objects
| `rgb-color` | Coloring objects
| rhythmic staff | Instantiating new staves
| `RhythmicStaff` | See also
| `RhythmicStaff` | See also
| `RhythmicStaff` | See also
| Rhythms in MIDI | Supported in MIDI
| rhythms, showing melody | Showing melody rhythms
| right aligning text | B.8.2 Align
| right hand fingerings for fretted instruments | Right-hand fingerings
| `rightHandFinger` | Right-hand fingerings
| `rightHandFinger` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `rightHandFinger` | B.14 Identifiers
| root of chord | Common chords
| rotating objects | Rotating layout objects
| rotating text | B.8.2 Align
S |  |
| `s` | Invisible rests
| sacred harp note heads | Shape note heads
| `sacredHarpHeads` | Shape note heads
| SATB | Multiple notes to one syllable
| `scaleDurations` | Scaling durations
| `scaleDurations` | Polymetric notation
| `scaleDurations` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `scaleDurations` | B.14 Identifiers
| scaling durations | Scaling durations
| scaling text | B.8.2 Align
| Scheme signature | Known issues and warnings
| `Scheme tutorial` | 5. Changing defaults
| `Scheme tutorial` | 6. Interfaces for programmers
| `scordatura` | See also
| `Score` | See also
| `Score` | B.12 All context properties
| `Score` | B.12 All context properties
| `Score is a (single) compound musical expression` | See also
| `Scores and parts` | 3.3.1 Including LilyPond files
| `Scores and parts` | See also
| `scoreTitleMarkup` | 3.2.2 Custom titles
| `scoreTweak` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `scoreTweak` | B.14 Identifiers
| Scottish highland bagpipe | Bagpipe definitions
| `Script` | See also
| script on multi-measure rest | Full measure rests
| scripts | Articulations and ornamentations
| seconda volta | 1.4.1 Long repeats
| segno | Rehearsal marks
| segno | Articulations and ornamentations
| segno | B.10 List of articulations
| segno on bar line | Text marks
| selecting font size (notation) | Selecting notation font size
| `self-alignment-interface` | 5.2.2 Layout interfaces
| `self-alignment-interface` | 5.5.1 Aligning objects
| Semai form | Arabic time signatures
| semi-flat | Note names in other languages
| Semi-flat symbol appearance | Arabic note names
| semi-flats | Accidentals
| semi-sharp | Note names in other languages
| semi-sharps | Accidentals
| separate text | Separate text
| `SequentialMusic` | 6.2.2 Internal music representation
| sesqui-flat | Note names in other languages
| sesqui-sharp | Note names in other languages
| `set` | Setting automatic beam behavior
| `set-accidental-style` | Automatic accidentals
| `set-octavation` | Ottava brackets
| `Setting automatic beam` | B.12 All context properties
| setting extent of text objects | B.8.6 Other
| setting horizontal text alignment | B.8.2 Align
| setting of ledger lines | Staff symbol
| `Setting simple songs` | References for vocal music and lyrics
| setting subscript in standard font size | B.8.1 Font
| setting superscript in standard font size | B.8.1 Font
| seventh chords | Common chords
| `sf` | Dynamics
| `sff` | Dynamics
| `sfz` | Dynamics
| shape notes | Shape note heads
| `sharp` | See also
| sharp, double | Accidentals
| shift note | Collision resolution
| shift rest, automatic | Collision resolution
| `shiftDurations` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `shiftDurations` | B.14 Identifiers
| shifting voices | Collision resolution
| `shiftOff` | Collision resolution
| `shiftOn` | Collision resolution
| `shiftOnn` | Collision resolution
| `shiftOnnn` | Collision resolution
| `short-indent` | Instrument names
| `short-indent` | Horizontal dimensions
| `show-available-fonts` | Single entry fonts
| `showFirstLength` | 3.4.2 Skipping corrected music
| `showKeySignature` | Bagpipe definitions
| `showLastLength` | 3.4.2 Skipping corrected music
| `showStaffSwitch` | Staff-change lines
| `side-position-interface` | 5.2.2 Layout interfaces
| `side-position-interface` | 5.5.1 Aligning objects
| signature, Scheme | Known issues and warnings
| signatures, polymetric | Polymetric notation
| `simile` | See also
| simple text strings | B.8.1 Font
| simple text strings with tie characters | B.8.4 Music
| simultaneous notes and accidentals | See also
| simultaneous phrasing slurs | Phrasing slurs
| simultaneous slurs | Slurs
| `SimultaneousMusic` | 6.2.2 Internal music representation
| singer name | Adding singers’ names to stanzas
| single-staff polyphony | Single-staff polyphony
| `Size of objects` | See also
| `skip` | Invisible rests
| `SkipMusic` | See also
| `skipTypesetting` | 3.4.2 Skipping corrected music
| slashed digits | B.8.6 Other
| slashed note heads | Improvisation
| slides in tablature notation | Default tablatures
| `slur` | See also
| `Slur` | See also
| slur and repeat | Known issues and warnings
| slur style | Slurs
| slur, dashed | Slurs
| slur, dotted | Slurs
| slur, phrasing | Slurs
| slur, phrasing | Phrasing slurs
| slur, solid | Slurs
| `slurDashed` | Slurs
| `slurDotted` | Slurs
| `slurDown` | Slurs
| `slurNeutral` | Slurs
| slurs | Slurs
| slurs, above notes | Slurs
| slurs, below notes | Slurs
| slurs, manual placement | Slurs
| slurs, multiple | Slurs
| slurs, multiple phrasing | Phrasing slurs
| slurs, simultaneous | Slurs
| slurs, simultaneous phrasing | Phrasing slurs
| `slurSolid` | Slurs
| `slurUp` | Slurs
| `small` | Selecting notation font size
| snap pizzicato | Snap (Bartók) pizzicato
| Solesmes | 2.8.1 Overview of the supported styles
| solid slur | Slurs
| solid slur | Slurs
| solo part | Automatic part combining
| soprano clef | Clef
| sos. | Piano pedals
| sostenuto pedal | Piano pedals
| `SostenutoEvent` | See also
| `sostenutoOff` | Piano pedals
| `sostenutoOn` | Piano pedals
| `SostenutoPedal` | See also
| `SostenutoPedalLineSpanner` | See also
| Sound | 3.5 MIDI output
| `sp` | Dynamics
| space between staves | 4.4.1 Vertical spacing inside a system
| space inside systems | 4.4.1 Vertical spacing inside a system
| spacer note | Invisible rests
| spacer rest | Invisible rests
| spaces, in lyrics | Lyrics explained
| spaces, in lyrics | Lyrics explained
| `spacing` | 4.5.1 Horizontal spacing overview
| Spacing lyrics | Spacing out syllables
| spacing of ledger lines | Staff symbol
| spacing, display of layout | 4.6.1 Displaying spacing
| spacing, horizontal | 4.5 Horizontal spacing
| spacing, vertical | 4.4 Vertical spacing
| `spacing-spanner-interface` | B.13 Layout properties
| `spacing-spanner-interface` | B.13 Layout properties
| `SpacingSpanner` | 4.5.1 Horizontal spacing overview
| `SpacingSpanner` | 4.5.1 Horizontal spacing overview
| `SpacingSpanner` | See also
| `SpacingSpanner` | See also
| `spacingTweaks` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `spacingTweaks` | B.14 Identifiers
| `SpanBar` | See also
| special arpeggio symbols | Arpeggio
| special characters in markup mode | Text markup introduction
| special note heads | Special note heads
| splitting notes | Automatic note splitting
| `spp` | Dynamics
| Sprechgesang | Spoken music
| Square neumes ligatures | Gregorian square neume ligatures
| staccatissimo | Articulations and ornamentations
| staccatissimo | B.10 List of articulations
| `staccato` | See also
| staccato | B.10 List of articulations
| stacking text in a column | B.8.2 Align
| `staff` | See also
| `Staff` | See also
| `Staff` | See also
| `staff` | See also
| `Staff` | See also
| `staff` | See also
| `Staff` | See also
| `Staff` | See also
| `Staff` | See also
| `Staff` | See also
| `Staff` | See also
| `Staff` | See also
| `Staff` | Custodes
| `Staff` | 4.5.1 Horizontal spacing overview
| `Staff` | B.12 All context properties
| staff change line | Staff-change lines
| staff changes, automatic | Changing staff automatically
| staff changes, manual | Changing staff manually
| staff distance | 4.4.1 Vertical spacing inside a system
| staff group | Grouping staves
| staff initiation | Instantiating new staves
| staff instantiation | Instantiating new staves
| staff line, thickness of | Staff symbol
| staff lines, amount of | Staff symbol
| staff lines, number of | Staff symbol
| staff size, setting | 4.2.1 Setting the staff size
| staff switching | Staff-change lines
| staff symbol, drawing | Staff symbol
| staff symbol, setting of | Staff symbol
| staff symbol, setting of | 5.4.4 Staff symbol properties
| staff, choir | Grouping staves
| staff, drum | Instantiating new staves
| staff, empty | Hiding staves
| staff, Frenched | Ossia staves
| staff, grand | Grouping staves
| staff, hiding | Hiding staves
| staff, multiple | Grouping staves
| staff, nested | Nested staff groups
| staff, new | Instantiating new staves
| staff, percussion | Instantiating new staves
| staff, piano | Grouping staves
| staff, resizing of | Ossia staves
| staff, single | Instantiating new staves
| staff, starting | Staff symbol
| staff, stopping | Staff symbol
| staff-change line | Staff-change lines
| `staff-padding` | Known issues and warnings
| `staff-symbol-interface` | Staff symbol
| `staff-symbol-interface` | See also
| `Staff.midiInstrument` | Instrument names
| `StaffGroup` | Known issues and warnings
| `StaffGroup` | See also
| `StaffGroup` | See also
| `StaffSpacing` | See also
| `StaffSymbol` | See also
| `StaffSymbol` | See also
| `StaffSymbol` | See also
| `StaffSymbol` | 4.2.1 Setting the staff size
| `Staff_symbol_engraver` | See also
| standalone text | Separate text
| standard font size (notation) | Selecting notation font size
| stanza number | Adding stanza numbers
| `StanzaNumber` | See also
| start of system | Grouping staves
| start repeat | Manual repeat marks
| start staff lines | Staff symbol
| `start-repeat` | Manual repeat marks
| `startGroup` | Analysis brackets
| starting a staff | Staff symbol
| `startStaff` | Staff symbol
| `startStaff` | Ossia staves
| `startTrillSpan` | Trills
| `staves` | See also
| staves, keyboard instruments | References for keyboards
| staves, keyed instruments | References for keyboards
| staves, multiple | Grouping staves
| staves, nested | Nested staff groups
| staves, piano | References for keyboards
| stem | Stems
| `Stem` | Cross-staff stems
| `Stem` | See also
| `Stem` | Mensural flags
| `Stem` | 6.5.2 Running a function on all layout objects
| stem, direction | Stems
| stem, down | Stems
| stem, invisible | Stems
| stem, neutral | Stems
| stem, up | Stems
| stem, with slash | Grace notes
| `stem-interface` | See also
| `stem-spacing-correction` | 4.5.1 Horizontal spacing overview
| `stemDown` | Stems
| `stemLeftBeamCount` | Manual beams
| `stemNeutral` | Stems
| `stemRightBeamCount` | Manual beams
| stems, cross-staff | Cross-staff stems
| `stemUp` | Stems
| `Stem_engraver` | See also
| stencil, removing | Removing the stencil
| stop staff lines | Staff symbol
| `stopGroup` | Analysis brackets
| stopped | Articulations and ornamentations
| stopped | B.10 List of articulations
| stopped | B.10 List of articulations
| stopping a staff | Staff symbol
| `stopStaff` | Staff symbol
| `stopStaff` | Ossia staves
| `stopTrillSpan` | Trills
| `storePredefinedDiagram` | Predefined fret diagrams
| `storePredefinedDiagram` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `storePredefinedDiagram` | B.14 Identifiers
| string numbers | String number indications
| `String quartet` | References for unfretted strings
| `String quartet` | See also
| string vs. fingering numbers | String number indications
| string, indicating open | Bowing indications
| `StringNumber` | See also
| strings, orchestral | 2.3 Unfretted string instruments
| strings, writing for | 2.3 Unfretted string instruments
| `StringTunings` | Custom tablatures
| `stringTunings` | Predefined fret diagrams
| `StrokeFinger` | See also
| strumming rhythms, showing | Showing melody rhythms
| style, rehearsal mark | Rehearsal marks
| styles, note heads | Special note heads
| styles, voice | Voice styles
| subbass clef | Clef
| subbass clef, subbass | Clef
| `subdivideBeams` | Selected Snippets
| subscript | Selecting font and font size
| subscript text | B.8.1 Font
| `subsubtitle` | 3.2.1 Creating titles
| `subtitle` | 3.2.1 Creating titles
| `suggestAccidentals` | Annotational accidentals (musica ficta)
| superscript | Selecting font and font size
| superscript text | B.8.1 Font
| `sus` | Extended and altered chords
| sustain pedal | Piano pedals
| sustain pedal style | Piano pedals
| `SustainEvent` | See also
| `sustainOff` | Piano pedals
| `sustainOn` | Piano pedals
| `SustainPedal` | See also
| `SustainPedalLineSpanner` | See also
| switching instruments | Instrument names
| symbols, non-musical | Graphic notation inside markup
| system | Grouping staves
| system start delimiters | Grouping staves
| system start delimiters, nested | Nested staff groups
| `system-count` | Other layout variables
| `system-separator-markup` | Other layout variables
| `SystemStartBar` | See also
| `SystemStartBar` | See also
| `SystemStartBrace` | See also
| `SystemStartBrace` | See also
| `SystemStartBracket` | See also
| `SystemStartBracket` | See also
| `SystemStartSquare` | See also
| `SystemStartSquare` | See also
| sytle, slur | Slurs
T |  |
| tablature | Instantiating new staves
| tablature | 2.4 Fretted string instruments
| tablature and harmonic indications | Default tablatures
| tablature and slides | Default tablatures
| tablature, banjo | 2.4 Fretted string instruments
| tablature, banjo | Custom tablatures
| tablature, banjo | Banjo tablatures
| tablature, bass guitar | Custom tablatures
| tablature, guitar | 2.4 Fretted string instruments
| tablature, mandolin | Custom tablatures
| tablature, predefined string tunings | Custom tablatures
| tablatures, basic | Default tablatures
| tablatures, custom | Custom tablatures
| tablatures, default | Default tablatures
| `TabNoteHead` | See also
| tabstaff | Instantiating new staves
| `TabStaff` | Default tablatures
| `TabStaff` | See also
| `TabVoice` | Default tablatures
| `Tab_note_heads_engraver` | See also
| `tag` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `tag` | B.14 Identifiers
| `tagline` | 3.2.1 Creating titles
| `taor` | Bagpipe definitions
| taqasim | Arabic time signatures
| `teaching` | Automatic accidentals
| teaching accidental style | Automatic accidentals
| `teeny` | Selecting notation font size
| Template Arabic music | Arabic music example
| `tempo` | Metronome marks
| `tempo indication` | See also
| tenor clef | Clef
| tenor clef, choral | Clef
| `tenuto` | See also
| tenuto | B.10 List of articulations
| `text` | Piano pedals
| text columns, left-aligned | B.8.2 Align
| text columns, right-aligned | B.8.2 Align
| text in volta bracket | Manual repeat marks
| text items, non-empty | Text scripts
| text markup | Text markup introduction
| text on multi-measure rest | Full measure rests
| text padding | Graphic notation inside markup
| Text scripts | Text scripts
| text size | Selecting font and font size
| Text spanners | Text spanners
| text, aligning | Text alignment
| text, horizontal alignment | Text alignment
| Text, other languages | 1.8.1 Writing text
| text, standalone | Separate text
| text, vertical alignment | Text alignment
| `text-interface` | 5.2.2 Layout interfaces
| `text-interface` | B.8.6 Other
| `text-script-interface` | 5.2.2 Layout interfaces
| `TextScript` | See also
| `TextScript` | See also
| `TextScript` | See also
| `TextScript` | See also
| `TextScript` | See also
| `TextScript` | See also
| `TextScript` | See also
| `TextScript` | See also
| `TextSpanner` | See also
| `TextSpanner` | See also
| `textSpannerDown` | Predefined commands
| `textSpannerNeutral` | Predefined commands
| `textSpannerUp` | Predefined commands
| `The Feta font` | B.8.4 Music
| thickness of staff lines | Staff symbol
| Thorough bass | Introduction to figured bass
| `thumb` | Fingering instructions
| thumb marking | Articulations and ornamentations
| thumb marking | B.10 List of articulations
| thumb-script | Fingering instructions
| `Tie` | See also
| `tie` | See also
| `Tie` | 6.8 Difficult tweaks
| `tie` | See also
| `TieColumn` | See also
| tied note, accidental | Accidentals
| `tieDashed` | Ties
| `tieDotted` | Ties
| `tieDown` | Ties
| `tieNeutral` | Ties
| ties and chords | Ties
| ties and volta brackets | Ties
| ties in alternative endings | Normal repeats
| ties in repeats | Normal repeats
| ties, appearance | Ties
| ties, dashed | Ties
| ties, dotted | Ties
| ties, in lyrics | Lyrics explained
| ties, in lyrics | Multiple syllables to one note
| ties, laissez vibrer | Ties
| ties, placement | Ties
| ties, repeating | Ties
| `tieSolid` | Ties
| `tieUp` | Ties
| `time` | Time signature
| `time` | Setting automatic beam behavior
| time administration | Time administration
| `time signature` | See also
| time signature style | Time signature
| time signature, compound | Selected Snippets
| time signature, visibility of | Time signature
| time signatures | Mensural time signatures
| time signatures, double | Polymetric notation
| Time signatures, multiple | 5.1.3 Modifying context plug-ins
| time signatures, polymetric | Polymetric notation
| `times` | Tuplets
| `times` | Polymetric notation
| `TimeScaledMusic` | See also
| `TimeSignature` | See also
| `TimeSignature` | See also
| `TimeSignature` | Mensural time signatures
| `timeSignatureFraction` | Polymetric notation
| timing (within the score) | Time administration
| timing information and repeats | Known issues and warnings
| `Timing_translator` | See also
| `Timing_translator` | See also
| `Timing_translator` | See also
| `Timing_translator` | See also
| `Timing_translator` | See also
| `Timing_translator` | B.12 All context properties
| `tiny` | Selecting notation font size
| `title` | 3.2.1 Creating titles
| titles | 3.2.2 Custom titles
| `tocItem` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `tocItem` | B.14 Identifiers
| `Top` | 5. Changing defaults
| top-level text | Separate text
| `top-margin` | Vertical dimensions
| transcription of mensural music | Selected Snippets
| translating text | B.8.2 Align
| translating text | B.8.2 Align
| `Translation` | 5.2.1 Navigating the program reference
| transparent notes | Hidden notes
| transparent, making objects | Making objects transparent
| `transpose` | See also
| `transpose` | Transpose
| `transpose` | See also
| `transposedCueDuring` | Formatting cue notes
| `transposedCueDuring` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `transposedCueDuring` | B.14 Identifiers
| `TransposedMusic` | See also
| transposing | Transpose
| transposing clefs | Clef
| transposing fret diagrams | Predefined fret diagrams
| `transposing instrument` | See also
| transposing instruments | Transpose
| `transposition` | Instrument transpositions
| `transposition` | Quoting other voices
| `transposition` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `transposition` | B.14 Identifiers
| transposition and relative octave entry | See also
| transposition of notes | Transpose
| transposition of pitches | Transpose
| transposition, instrument | Instrument transpositions
| transposition, MIDI | Instrument transpositions
| tre corde | Piano pedals
| treble clef | Clef
| `treCorde` | Piano pedals
| `tremolo` | Tremolo repeats
| tremolo beams | Tremolo repeats
| tremolo marks | Tremolo repeats
| tremolo, cross-staff | See also
| `tremoloFlags` | Tremolo repeats
| triads | Common chords
| `trill` | Trills
| trill | B.10 List of articulations
| trill, pitched with forced accidental | Trills
| trills | Trills
| trills, pitched | Trills
| `TrillSpanner` | See also
| `TrillSpanner` | See also
| `triplet` | See also
| triplet formatting | Selected Snippets
| triplets | Tuplets
| `Tunable context properties` | 5.3.2 The `\set` command
| tuning automatic beaming | Setting automatic beam behavior
| tunings, banjo | Banjo tablatures
| `tuplet` | See also
| tuplet formatting | Selected Snippets
| `TupletBracket` | See also
| `tupletDown` | Tuplets
| `tupletNeutral` | Tuplets
| `TupletNumber` | Selected Snippets
| `tupletNumberFormatFunction` | Selected Snippets
| tuplets | Tuplets
| `tupletSpannerDuration` | Selected Snippets
| `tupletUp` | Tuplets
| turn | Articulations and ornamentations
| turn | B.10 List of articulations
| `tweak` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `tweak` | B.14 Identifiers
| tweaking | 5.3.3 The `\override` command
| tweaking | 5.3.4 The `\tweak` command
| tweaking control points | Known issues and warnings
| `Tweaking methods` | See also
| `Tweaking methods` | 5.3.4 The `\tweak` command
| `Tweaking methods` | See also
| `Tweaking output` | 5. Changing defaults
| `Tweaking output` | See also
| tweaks in a variable | Known issues and warnings
| tweaks in lyrics | Known issues and warnings
| typeset text | Text markup introduction
U |  |
| U.C. | Piano pedals
| una corda | Piano pedals
| `unaCorda` | Piano pedals
| `UnaCordaEvent` | See also
| `UnaCordaPedal` | See also
| `UnaCordaPedalLineSpanner` | See also
| underlining text | B.8.1 Font
| `unfold` | Written-out repeats
| unfold music | Written-out repeats
| unfold music with alternate endings | Written-out repeats
| unfold repeat | Written-out repeats
| unfold repeat with alternate endings | Written-out repeats
| `UnfoldedRepeatedMusic` | See also
| `UnfoldedRepeatedMusic` | See also
| `unfoldRepeats` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `unfoldRepeats` | B.14 Identifiers
| `unHideNotes` | Hidden notes
| unmetered music | Unmetered music
| unmetered music | Time administration
| up bow indication | Bowing indications
| upbeat | Upbeats
| upbeat in a repeat | Normal repeats
| upbow | Articulations and ornamentations
| upbow | B.10 List of articulations
| URL | The music typesetter
V |  |
| varbaritone clef | Clef
| varcoda | Articulations and ornamentations
| varcoda | B.10 List of articulations
| variables | 3.1.3 File structure
| variables, use of | Using variables
| Vaticana, Editio | 2.8 Ancient notation
| Vaticana, Editio | 2.8.1 Overview of the supported styles
| `VaticanaStaff` | See also
| VaticanaStaffContext | Gregorian chant contexts
| VaticanaVoiceContext | Gregorian chant contexts
| `Vaticana_ligature_engraver` | 2.8.4 Typesetting Gregorian chant
| vertical lines between staves | Grid lines
| vertical positioning of dynamics | Dynamics
| vertical spacing | 4.4 Vertical spacing
| vertical spacing | 4.5.4 Line length
| vertical text alignment | Text alignment
| `VerticalAlignment` | 4.4.1 Vertical spacing inside a system
| `VerticalAlignment` | See also
| `VerticalAxisGroup` | See also
| `VerticalAxisGroup` | 4.4.1 Vertical spacing inside a system
| `VerticalAxisGroup` | 4.4.1 Vertical spacing inside a system
| vertically centering text | B.8.2 Align
| violin clef | Clef
| `Visibility and color of objects` | 5.1.3 Modifying context plug-ins
| `Visibility and color of objects` | 5.4.6 Visibility of objects
| `Visibility and color of objects` | Using break-visibility
| `Visibility and color of objects` | See also
| visibility of objects | 5.4.6 Visibility of objects
| visibility of octavated clefs | Special considerations
| `Vocal ensembles` | Multiple notes to one syllable
| `Vocal ensembles` | 5.1.6 Aligning contexts
| `voice` | Automatic accidentals
| `Voice` | Single-staff polyphony
| `Voice` | See also
| `voice` | Automatic accidentals
| `Voice` | See also
| `Voice` | Known issues and warnings
| `Voice` | See also
| `Voice` | See also
| `Voice` | Automatic syllable durations
| `Voice` | Manual syllable durations
| `Voice` | Ligatures
| `Voice` | White mensural ligatures
| `Voice` | 4.5.1 Horizontal spacing overview
| `Voice` | 5.2.3 Determining the grob property
| `Voice` | 5.3.2 The `\set` command
| voice accidental style | Automatic accidentals
| voice styles | Voice styles
| voice, following | Staff-change lines
| `VoiceFollower` | See also
| `VoiceFollower` | See also
| `voiceOne` | Single-staff polyphony
| `Voices contain music` | See also
| `Voices contain music` | See also
| voices, multiple | Collision resolution
| voices, multiple | Collision resolution
| `volta` | See also
| volta bracket | Manual repeat marks
| volta bracket with text | Manual repeat marks
| volta brackets and ties | Ties
| volta, prima | 1.4.1 Long repeats
| volta, seconda | 1.4.1 Long repeats
| `VoltaBracket` | See also
| `VoltaBracket` | See also
| `VoltaRepeatedMusic` | See also
| `VoltaRepeatedMusic` | See also
| `Volta_engraver` | See also
W |  |
| web site | The music typesetter
| `whichBar` | Selected Snippets
| White mensural ligatures | White mensural ligatures
| whole rest for a full measure | Full measure rests
| wind instruments | References for wind instruments
| `with-color` | Coloring objects
| `Within-staff objects` | 5.4.2 Direction and placement
| `withMusicProperty` | 6.1.7 Overview of available music functions
| `withMusicProperty` | B.14 Identifiers
| wordwrapped text | Text alignment
| `Working on input files` | See also
| writing music in parallel | Writing music in parallel
| written-out repeats | Written-out repeats
X |  |
| x11 color | Coloring objects
| x11 color | See also
| `x11-color` | Coloring objects
| `x11-color` | See also

Jump to: | ! ' ( , - . / 1 8 : < = > ? [ \ ] ^ _ | ~ A B C D E F G H I J K L M N O P Q R S T U V W X

# Footnotes

[1] The lyric ties is implemented with the Unicode character U+203F, so be sure to have a font (Like DejaVuLGC) installed that includes this glyph.

[2] Nicely printed parts are good PR for us, so please leave the tagline if you can.

[3] Scheme tutorial, contains a short tutorial on entering numbers, lists, strings, and symbols in Scheme.

# Table of Contents

# About This Document

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#### Notation Reference